企业财务外文文献及翻译论文
财务论文的英文参考文献大全
财务是非常有前途的一个职业,也是一个很容易规划自己发展路径的职业。下面是我为大家整理的财务论文英文参考文献，欢迎阅读。
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2004年7月 学 术 交 流 Jul., 2004总第124期 第7期 Academic Exchange Serial ·企业改革与发展研究·中小企业会计规范化问题探讨牟远健1,丁玲玲2,王 静1(1.黑龙江省畜产公司,黑龙江哈尔滨150001;2.黑龙江省林业科学院,黑龙江哈尔滨150001)[摘 要]中小企业会计核算存在会计核算主体界限不清,企业产权与个人财产界限不清;所有者自身素质及逃避纳税心理,制约会计核算规范化;会计机构设置不符合相关规定;会计核算违规操作等问题,对此,必须采取相关措施,使会计核算规范化。[关键词]中小企业;会计规范化;会计核算[中图分类号]F270 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]1000-8284(2004)07-0049-03中小企业在完善我国市场机制、推动国民经济的发展、增加劳动就业、保持社会稳定等方面发挥着重要的作用。但在发展中也存在着许多问题,特别是会计核算的不规范,是制约中小企业进一步发展的瓶颈。 一、中小企业会计核算存在的问题1.会计核算主体界限不清,企业产权与个人财产界限不清。中小企业的经营权与所有权的分离远不如大企业那么明显,尤其中小企业中的民营企业,投资者就是经营者,企业财产与个人家庭财产经常发生相互占用的情况,给会计核算工作带来困难。2.所有者自身的素质低及逃避纳税的心理,制约着中小企业会计核算的规范化。中小企业在经营过程中,为了自身利益,往往有通过逃避纳税的方式增加财富的想法,经营状况不好时,逃避纳税的愿望就更强烈。当外部监管力度不够时,这种现象会普遍存在。3.会计机构的设置不符合相关规定。很多中小企业,特别是民营企业,为了节约核算成本,不按规定设置会计机构。有的企业即使设置了会计机构,也层次不清、分工不明。4.会计人员的业务素质低下。由于中小企业一般经营品种繁杂、行业各异,经营规模差距较大,所聘用的财务人员素质参差不齐,从而导致了会计核算的不规范。在会计人员任用上,小企业最常见的做法是用自己的亲属当出纳,外聘“高手”作兼职会计,这些人员有在税务部门工作的,有国有企业财务管理人员,有会计师事务所的人员等,一般定期来做账。有些中小企业企业管理者也愿意聘请能力强的会计人员做专职会计,但是由于其发展前景及社会上得到人们认识程度较低,再加上较差的工作保障,使得其对优秀会计人员的吸引力不强。会计从业人员资格认定及规范考核的问题也很多,会[收稿日期]2004-04-18[作者简介]牟远健(1978-),女,黑龙江庆安人,黑龙江省畜产公司会计师,从事会计理论与实践研究;丁玲玲(1973-),女,黑龙江密山人,黑龙江省林业科学院会计师,从事会计理论与实践研究;王静(1972-),女,江苏丰县人,黑龙江省林业科学院会计师,从事会计理论与实践研究。·49·计无证上岗现象严重,会计主管不具备专业技术资格的现象不胜枚举,会计人员的后续教育培养工作几乎没有进行。5.建账不规范或不依法建账,会计核算常有违规操作。中小企业有些根本不设账,以票代账;或者设账,但账目混乱。还有相当一部分中小企业设两套账或多套账,使会计信息严重失真。在会计核算方面,待摊费用、预提费用不按规定摊提,人为操纵利润,采用倒轧账的方式记账等。有些会计人员知识结构老化与专业知识较低,使得许多理论上完善的会计方法与复杂的会计技术无法实施,或在实施时大打折扣。6.内部会计监督职能没有发挥出来。内部会计监督要求会计人员对本企业内部的经济活动进行会计监督,但是中小企业的管理者常干预会计工作,会计人员受制于管理者或受利益驱使,往往按管理者的意图行事,使会计的监督职能几乎无法发挥。7.原始凭证付出成本大,或者难以获得。原始凭证的获取要付出成本,是因为企业在购买商品时要不要发票存在着不同的价格,若要发票,就要加价,价格较高;不要发票价格较低,两者的差价是税款。还有的企业发生费用后无法取得发票,只能用不合法的收据,在上级主管部门摊派的费用中支出。企业只好不做此账,或相互之间调剂票据。8.企业内部控制制度不够健全,也阻碍了中小企业会计规范化的发展。由于部分中小企业现有的人员素质和管理水平较低,无法建立健全诸如内部稽核、定额管理、计量验收、成本核算等制度,阻碍了中小企业会计规范化的进程,造成了企业资产流失、浪费严重、经营管理混乱等。 二、规范中小企业会计核算的建议1.加强相关法律法规的建设和执行,促进中小企业的全面健康发展。要解决中小企业会计规范化问题,靠一两家企业自我完善和会计人员努力是很难实现的。只有促进中小企业的健康发展,解决企业融资困难,实现科学化管理,克服自身的弱点才能从根本上解决会计规范化的问题。解决这一问题的根本办法就是执行好现有的相关法律法规,并根据经济发展的需要,适时制定、修改有关中小企业的法律法规,这样才能既促进中小企业会计规范化建设,加强中小企业的管理,又能为中小企业的全面发展保驾护航。2.建立与我国中小企业相适应的会计制度。在过去很长一段时间里,国家在制定会计规范体系的过程中,很少考虑到中小企业会计需求与大企业和上市公司的差别,随着中小企业在我国经济发展中的作用越来越重要,会计理论界对中小企业会计规范化问题日趋关注。中小企业会计制度的制订应遵循以下原则:(1)适应中小企业的特点。在会计制度设计中要考虑企业经营管理组织体系的设置,并与此保持一致。由于中小型企业业务量较少,会计核算只能采用集中核算方式,即由会计机构统一办理。部分中小企业交易类型有限,经营活动比较简单,一般只需要简单的数据,没有对数据产生深层次分析的需要,因此应允许一些企业不设会计机构。会计人员一般以2~3人为宜,并指派一人担任财务主管,在职责划分上要注意不相容职责的分离,如出纳、总账与稽核,出纳与总账、明细账的分离等。有些企业的会计工作也可由社会中介机构代理。中小企业行业涉及面广,会计科目设置上应考虑通用性,针对采用独资和合伙形式的中小企业所要承担的无限责任,应考虑对会计制度的影响;对于企业财产和个人家庭支出相互占用的情况,应设置往来账户加以核算;适当放宽凭证的认定,以解决中小企业难以获得合法凭据的问题等。总之,中小企业会计准则的制定一定要充分考虑中小企·50·业的特点。(2)重要性原则,要求提供的信息重点突出。与大型企业相比,会计信息需求者在中小企业中发生了变化。首先,税务部门的纳税管理需求成为最主要的外部需求;其次,投资者的决策需求和管理者的管理需求相统一;最后是银行贷款管理需求,但是此需求因银行提供的贷款很少而相对薄弱。会计信息需求上的变化,决定了中小企业的会计应着眼于这些企业税务上的需要和内部信息的需求。(3)成本效益原则。会计信息的提供是有成本的,企业在提供会计信息的过程中应讲求成本效益原则。(4)简便易行。由于中小企业业务量小、会计人员素质参差不齐,会计制度设计时应充分考虑到操作上的简便易行。3.加强外部监管力度。从目前我国中小企业的现状来看,靠企业自身约束来规范会计工作是不现实的,我们应该更多的借助于外部监管,帮助中小企业实现会计规范化。财政部门首先应指导督促中小企业依《会计基础工作规范》的要求建立健全账簿体系,发现不符合《会计基础工作规范》要求的,应及时严肃处理;其次,财政部门还应督促中小企业建立、健全会计内部控制制度和内部核算制度;最后,财政部门还应切实地做好财务人员的后续教育。税务部门也应改进查核方式,改进税务人员对于中小企业的态度,并建立税务代理人制度,以增加税务申报速度,减轻税务人员的工作负担,以便全心进行查核工作。我们相信,只要充分认识到我国中小企业会计规范化进程中存在的问题,并充分考虑到中小企业在经济发展中的重要性,有关方面齐抓共管、共同努力,定能把这项艰巨的工作做得更好。Probing into the Accounting Standardization of Small andMiddle-sized EnterprisesMUYuan-jian1, DING Ling-ling2, WANG Jing1( Products Corporation,HarbinHeilongjiang150001, China; ofForest Sciences, HarbinHeilongjiang150001, China)Abstract:In accounting operation of small and medium-sized enterprises, there are many prob-lems such as less clear partition toward main bodies of bookkeeping operation, blur limits betweenenterprise’s property and personal property, slow process of operation standardization restrained byowner’s quality and his tax-evasion motive, mismatched accounting institutions with relative provi-sions and disobedient operation process against regulations, etc. In view of such problems we mustadopt related measures to make accounting operation words:small and medium-sized enterprise, accounting standardization, accounting operation〔责任编辑:刘 阳〕·51·
1 the meaning of financial riskYe at "small and medium-sized financial risk assessment and control of research" that the financial risk is the possibility of corporate insolvency and shareholders, the proceeds of uncertainty, it is difficult because of enterprise funds, to adopt a different mode of financing brought about by from the analysis of financial risk on its meaning, characteristics and types of content; at this based on the causes of the financial risk to conduct in-depth analysis and detailed research, analysis concludes that the financial risks arising from internal factors and external aspects; in turn, establish a risk awareness, the establishment of an effective risk prevention mechanism; set up and improve the financial management system to meet the financial management of environmental change; set up the financial risk early warning mechanism, strengthen the financial crisis management; improve the scientific level of financial decision-making to prevent due to poor decisions arising from the financial risk; through internal systems to prevent the establishment of binding mechanisms to control and guard against financial risk in five areas of financial risk prevention measures as well as self-insurance, diversification of risk control, risk transfer, risk averse, risk reducing the five techniques. Only controlled enterprises to guard against and defuse financial risks, in order to ensure that enterprises in the fierce competition in the market in an invincible causes of the financial risks(A) external causes1, the national policy changes brought about by the financing risk. Generally speaking, small and medium-sized production and operation because of instability. A country's economy or monetary policy changes, there may be small and medium-sized production and management, market conditions and financing forms have a certain impact. Beginning in 2007, our country has increased the intensity of macroeconomic regulation and control, the central bank to raise the fourth time the deposit reserve ratio, in particular, are ready to implement the difference between a direct deposit system to make small and medium-sized service-oriented small and medium-sized commercial banks to tighten credit, SMEs First of all, the capital supply disruption, the risk of inviting a lot of financing, SMEs also in urgent need of funds can not be forced to stop production or the scale of downsizing. 2, bank financing channels for non-financial risks caused by fluid. Corporate sources of funds are nothing more than its own funds and external financing in two ways. In various modes of financing, the bank credit is also an important source of funds, but banks in the country's financial policies as well as their own sound system is not under the influence of such circumstances, the general enthusiasm for SME lending is not high, their loans more difficult to increase the the enterprise's financial risk.(B) internal factors one, blind expansion of investment scale. There is a considerable number of conditions are not ripe for the SMEs in the circumstances, only the experience of one-sided pursuit of companies to determine the expansion of the extension, ignore the company's content and core competitiveness, resulting in a major capital investment wasted. 2, the investment decision-making errors. For business, the correct selection of industries are the starting point for the survival and development strategy. However, some industrial enterprises in the selection process, the often overlooked "industry is a dynamic selection process" concept, should not a keen grasp of industry trends and direction of evolution. 3, improper selection of investment partners. Enterprises to make investment decisions, we must give full consideration to qualified partners, reputation, and should have to bear the corresponding risks. 4, less than honest. Lack of SME credit is a common situation. Therefore, small and medium-sized banks to provide loans or investments to small and medium-sized people had to step up investment on human resources in order to improve the quality of information collection and analysis. This respect has increased the investment bank or person lending and investment costs. On the other hand also give small and medium enterprises financing difficult. Ability to finance capital, to finance the number of funds, the financing of SMEs exist great uncertainties.
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财务分析毕业论文外文翻译
First, the privately operated enterprise the question and the reasonanalysis which exists in the financial control As everybody knows, business management including productionmanagement, marketing management and financial control and so on manyaspects, but the financial control is the enterprise entire managementsystem core, enterprise's financial control goal is a goal which theenterprise pursues. Obviously, only has take the financial control asthe center, the coordination operates management system each aspect,can effectively strengthen the business management, the promotionenterprise from the nation that, the privately operated enterprise quantitymultitudinous, distributed is widespread, the characteristicrespectively differently, in addition receives the macroscopiceconomic environment and the system influence, the privately operatedenterprise was strengthening the financial control aspect to meet thecertain resistance, for example: The policy "the discrimination"causes the privately operated enterprise and the major industry cannotthe fair competition, the local authority, the profession controlsection's intervention, causes the privately operated enterprise thefinancial control goal short-term, again is main is the privatelyoperated enterprise financial control owner's influence oversized andso on some subjective factors existences, causes the financial controlthe importance to neglect. Therefore, in its financial control existsquestion also many and varied, I believed, at present the universalexistence question and the reason mainly have: . (1) financing difficulty, the revolving fund is insufficient, causeslake of the financial control Cheng Duanyuan. At present, the our country privately operated enterprise initiallyestablished has been independent, the channel many Yuan financingsystem, but, financed difficultly, to guarantee difficultly, still wasthe most prominent question which the restriction privately operatedenterprise developed, the main question was: First, is in debtexcessively many, financing cost high, risk big, creates the privatelyoperated enterprise credit rank low, helps the letter relatively to beworse. Second, the majority privately operated enterprise right andwrong major industry, some banks the traditional ideas and theadministrative intervention influence, insufficiently are warm-heartedto its loan. Third, the facilitating agency is not perfect, lacksspecially the financial facilitating agency and the loan guaranteeorganization which serves for the privately operated enterprise loan. Analyzes its main reason to display in two aspects: One is the financeindustry is insufficient to the privately operated enterprise's creditaid. Our country finance system from establishes to the serviceproject, mostly is take the big enterprise as the service object, theprivately operated enterprise's credit service is often the loan is difficult, in the production management processneeds the fund to be insufficient, enormously has restricted theprivately operated enterprise's development. Some privately operatedenterprises, although exists temporarily difficultly, but the bankonce supports can bring back to life; Two is the privately operatedenterprise's financing channel is unitary, adapts the market demandchange with difficulty. As a result of some privately operatedenterprises, in both cannot obtain the bank the loan support, and doesnot have self- financing or to the social public financing ability,imperceptibly, strengthened the enterprise financial control also tobecome an empty talk, the financial control has also become mediateslake of the source. (2) financial control is weak, lacks the scientific nature, causes thefinancial control to take a step difficultly. The majority of privately operated enterprises have the financialcontrol link to be weak, moreover to strengthens the financial controlaspect insufficiently to take, has not understood the financialcontrol from the true significance in enterprise's status. The mainquestion includes: One is the fund management is lax, financialcontrol weak, creates the fund to leave unused or to be is the receivable account funds turnover is slow, causes the fundrecycling difficulty. Three, the inventory control is weak, createsthe fund delay. Four is re- Qian Qingwu, the property drainsseriously. Analyzes its reason mainly is: One is some privately operatedenterprises thought cash more the better, causes the massive cashesnot to participate in the turnover, some are the fund lacks the planarrangement, excessive purchase real estate, but causes the enterpriseto be unable to deal with the management urgently needed fund, fallsinto the financial difficult position. Two is does not have theestablishment strict selling on credit policy, lacks powerfullydestroys receives the measure, should receive money cannot cash orform the dull account. Three is very many privately operatedenterprises end of the month the goods in stock takes the fund oftento surpass its turnover above two times, creates the fund delayturnover to malfunction. Four is many privately operated enterprisessuperintendents, to management and so on raw material, half-finishedproduct, fixed asset did not arrive, leaves question nobody toinvestigate, the property waste was serious. Above analyzes thereason, most importantly because the enterprise upper formationleadership financial control idea is backward, lacks the scientificnature, the untrue understanding financial control to does in thethought greatly makes the role which the strong enterprise plays, hasnot bought into line with the financial control the businessmanagement in the effective mechanism, lacks the modern financialcontrol idea, caused the financial control to lose it the status andthe function which should have in the business management, took a stepdifficultly. 3) management pattern boundary, manages the idea obsoletely, causesthe financial control to be dark however 失色. Because receives the old financial system since long ago in thethought the restraint, business management personnel's idea comparisonlag. The main question includes: One is at the same time enterprise'sinvestor is the operator. Two is the enterprise superintendent'smanagement ability and the management quality bad, manages the thoughtto be backward. Analyzes its reason mainly is: The privately operated enterprise modelmanagement pattern is the property rights and the operating righthighly unifies, at the same time enterprise's investors is theoperator, this kind of pattern inevitably will give the enterprise thefinancial control to bring the negative influence, in the privatelyoperated enterprise quite a part will belong to the individual tooperate privately the nature, in these enterprises, enterprise leadercentralization phenomenon serious, and will lack the understanding andthe research to the financial control theory method which will besupposed to have, will cause its responsibility not to divide, exceedsauthority to handle affairs, creates the financial control chaotic,the finance will supervise the nucleus not to be lax, accountant thepersonnel alone boat difficult line, to think the standard managementwill be very difficult. The majority of enterprises not or are unableto establish the interior auditing department, even if has, also isvery difficult to guarantee the internal audit the , some enterprises have not bought into line with thefinancial control the business management in the effective mechanism,lacks the modern financial control idea, the most privateenterpreneurs not yet establish such as scientific management the andso on time value, risk value, marginal cost, opportunity cost concept,as a result of the management pattern boundary, manages the ideaobsoletely, causes the financial control to be dark however forget,has lost it the status and the function which should have in thebusiness management. 大家知道，企业管理包括生产管理、营销管理和财务管理等多个方面，而财务管理是企业整个管理体系的核心，企业的财务管理目标即是企业追求的目标。可见，只有以财务管理为中心，协调运作管理体系的各个方面，才能有效地强化企业管理，促进企业发展。从全国来说，民营企业数量众多、分布广泛、特点各异，再加上受宏观经济环境化和体制影响，民营企业在加强财务管理方面遇到了一定的阻力，例如：政策的“歧视”使民营企业和大型企业不能公平竞争，地方政府、行业管理部门的干预，使民营企业的财务管理目标短期化，再主要的就是民营企业财务管理受业主的影响过大等一些主观因素的存在，导致财务管理的重要性被忽视。所以，其财务管理中存在的问题也多种多样，我认为，目前普遍存在的问题和原因主要有： （一）融资困难，周转资金不足，使财务管理成断源之湖。 目前，我国民营企业初步建立了较为独立、渠道多元的融资体系，但是，融资难、担保难，仍然是制约民营企业发展的最突出的问题，主要问题是：第一，负债过多，融资成本高，风险大，造成民营企业信用等级低，资信相对较差。第二，大多数民营企业是非大型企业，有些银行受传统观念和行政干预的影响，对其贷款不够热心。第三，中介机构不健全，缺乏专门为民营企业贷款服务的金融中介机构和贷款担保机构。 分析其主要原因表现在两个方面：一是金融业对民营企业的信贷支持不够。我国金融系统从设置到服务项目，大都是以大企业为服务对象，民营企业的信贷服务往往被忽视。由于贷款难，生产经营过程中所需资金不足，极大制约了民营企业的发展。有的民营企业，虽存在暂时困难，但银行一旦支持就能起死回生；二是民营企业的融资渠道单一，难以适应市场需求的变化。由于有的民营企业，在既得不到银行的贷款支持，又不具有自我融资或向社会公开融资能力，无形中，加强企业财务管理也就成了一句空话，财务管理也就成了断源之湖。 （二）财务控制薄弱，缺乏科学性，使财务管理举步艰难。 大部分民营企业存在财务控制环节薄弱，而且对加强财务管理方面不够重视，没有从真正意义上理解财务管理在企业中的地位。主要问题有：一是资金管理不严，财务控制薄弱，造成资金闲置或不足。二是应收账款周转缓慢，造成资金回收困难。三是存货控制薄弱，造成资金呆滞。四是重钱轻物，资产流失严重。 分析其原因主要是：一是有些民营企业认为现金越多越好，致使大量现金未参加周转，有的是资金缺少计划安排，过量购置不动产，而使企业无法应付经营急需的资金，陷入财务困境。二是没有建立严格的赊销政策，缺乏有力的摧收措施，应收款不能兑现或形成呆账。三是很多民营企业月末存货占用资金往往超过其营业额的两倍以上，造成资金呆滞周转失灵。四是不少民营企业管理者，对原材料、半成品、固定资产等管理不到位，出了问题无人追究，资产浪费严重。分析以上原因，最重要的是因为企业上层领导财务管理观念落后，缺乏科学性，在思想上没有真正理解财务管理对做大做强一个企业所起到的作用，没有将财务管理纳入企业管理的有效机制中，缺乏现代财务管理观念，使财务管理失去了它在企业管理中应有的地位和作用，举步艰难。 （三）管理模式疆化，管理观念陈旧，使财务管理暗然失色。 由于长期以来在思想上受到旧的财务制度的约束，企业管理人员的观念比较滞后。主要问题有：一是企业的投资者同时就是经营者。二是企业管理者的管理能力和管理素质差，管理思想落后。 分析其原因主要是：民营企业典型的管理模式是所有权和经营权高度统一，企业的投资者同时就是经营者，这种模式势必给企业的财务管理带来负面影响，民营企业中相当一部分属于个体私营性质，在这些企业中，企业领导者集权现象严重，并且对财务管理的理论方法缺乏应有的认识和研究，致使其职责不分，越权行事，造成财务管理混乱，财务监核不严，会计人员独舟难行，想规范管理很难。大部分企业没有或无法建立内部审计部门，即使有，也很难保证内部审计的独立性。另外，有些企业没有将财务管理纳入企业管理的有效机制中，缺乏现代财务管理观念，多数民营企业家尚未建立起诸如时间价值、风险价值、边际成本、机会成本等科学管理的概念，由于管理模式疆化，管理观念陈旧，使财务管理暗然失色，失去了它在企业管理中应有的地位和作用。
网上很多类似下载要么是受保护要么是收费，你需要的话去当地的书城找是最好的途径，当年我们找全英文文献都是去图书馆翻书。各种会计类的，商务管理类的书，全英文的，大型书店都有。我手边有几本我以前用过的。不过一字一字给你打上来实在是。。。要老命了。总之去大型书店绝对没问题。网上想找真的很难。
财务风险论文外文参考文献翻译
你好，类似的参考文献也比较多，我们简单写出几条。 W F. Capital asset prices:A theory of market equilibrium under conditions of risk[J].Journal of Finance, M. Global financial markets,derivative securities,and systematic risks[J].Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, R S. The effects of the firm's capital structure on the systematic risk of common stocks[J].Journal of Finance, R. The theoretical relationship between systematic risk and financial(accounting) variables[J].Journal of Finance,1979,(03): R. The theoretical relationship between systematic risk and financial (accounting)variables-reply[J].Journal of Finance, B. On the association between leverage and risk[J].Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis, G N,Rhee S G. The impact of the degrees of operating and financial leverage on systematic risk of common stock[J].Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis,1984,(01): R,Brown P. Portfolio theory and aocounting[J].Journal of Accounting Research, W H,Kettler P,Scholes M. The association between market-determined and accounting-determined risk measures[J].The Accounting Review, W H,Manegold J. The association between market-determined and accounting-determined measures of systematic risk:Some further evidence[J].Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis,.欢迎交流，如果我的回答能帮到你一点，请及时采纳，也是一份鼓励吧。
财务危机(Financial Distress)通常是指企业不能偿还到期债务的困难和危机，其极端形式是企业破产。当企业资金匮乏和信用崩溃同时出现时，企业破产便无可挽回。所以，为防止财务危机与破产的发生，每个企业都在寻求防止财务危机的方法和拯救危机的措施。尤其是在2001年4月20日，中国证券市场上第一例摘牌公司“PT水仙”成为事实后，无论是上市公司还是非上市公司都在防范出现财务危机。另外，中国即将加入WTO，国内企业将面临更加激烈的竞争，要想在激烈的竞争中立于不败之地，加强财务危机预警制无疑是每个企业都应加强的一个重要方面。本文结合近年来一些危机企业、破产企业的情况，探讨在面临竞争与发展的情况下，造成企业财务危机的原因。 一、多角化经营的陷阱 当企业发展到一定程度，为避免经营风险，许多公司都追求多角化的经营模式，试图使企业走上健康稳定发展的道路。然而，现实不仅让人们看到成功企业的辉煌，同时也看到了多角化经营使企业走上财务危机甚至破产危机的道路。所以多角化经营并不是企业避免经营风险的灵丹妙药。除非恰当使用，否则，企业十分容易陷入财务危机。 1、证券投资组合理论的简单误用。证券投资组合理论是多角化经营的理论基础，该理论认为，金融资产的风险有两种：一是不可分散的风险或称系统风险，即存在于每个证券中，是不能通过证券组合来分散掉的风险；一是可分散的风险或称非系统风险，即存在于单个证券中，可以通过证券组合来分散掉的风险。投资者可以通过持有一个证券组合来分散非系统风险，证券间相关系数越低，分散风险的效果越好；随着组合内证券数量的增多，分散效果越明显，当证券数量达到一定时，基本可完全分散掉非系统风险。这一原理应用到企业生产经营活动时，即为企业的多角化经营。然而，证券组合投资具有其特定的条件，如果不加分析的盲目应用，不但不能达到避免风险的作用，反而加剧了企业的财务危机。证券组合理论的投资对象是金融资产，金融资产投资具有可分割性、流动性和相容性等特点，因此在进行金融资产投资时，不必考虑投资的规模、投资的时间约束以及投资项目的多少等因素，只要考虑各金融资产的相关性、风险、报酬及其相互关系问题，并依据风险——报酬的选择，可实现金融资产投资的优化选择。而多角化经营的投资对象是实物资产，其投资具有整体性、不可逆性、时间约束性的互斥性等特点。所以在多角化经营时，不能简单地进行不相关产业的多方位投资，而是要考虑到各项目的投资规模、资金占用情况及资金约束条件下的各项目的比较选优问题。否则，简单误用证券组合理论必将导致企业投资于无关项目、无序多占资金、投入大于产出等等现象，最终导致企业资金缺乏，周转不灵，出现财务危机。众所周知的巨人集团的兴衰就是最好的证明。 2、丧失核心竞争能力的多元化投资。在企业的利润、市场份额、核心竞争能力等因素中，核心竞争能力是保持企业竞争优势的最主要因素，它是企业一项竞争优势资源和企业发展的长期支撑力。它可能表现为先进的技术，或某种服务理念，其实质就是一组先进技术和能力的集合体。尽管企业之间的竞争通常表现为核心能力所衍生出来的核心产品、最终产品的市场之争，但其实质归结为核心能力之间的竞争。企业只有具备核心竞争能力，才能具有持久的竞争优势。否则只能“昙花一现”。企业一时的成功并不表明企业已经拥有了核心竞争能力，企业核心竞争能力要靠企业的长期培植。也是就是说，多元化投资只是为保持企业核心竞争能力的一种手段。从这一点来说，企业应首先拥有一个具有竞争能力的核心产品，然后，围绕其核心产品、核心竞争能力再考虑是否应该多元化经营。没有根植于核心竞争力的多元化经营，又不能在外部扩张战略中培植新的核心竞争能力，结果就可能把原来的竞争优势也丧失殆尽，直接的表现就是新项目挤占优势主业的资金，但却不产生相应的效益反而拖跨优势主业，最终导致企业内部整体资金的匮乏。二、经营杠杆的负效应 现代企业理财原理告诉我们，企业在经营决策时对经营成本中固定成本的利用，可为企业带来经营杠杆作用。具体的说，当销售收入或销售量不断增长时，企业中一定量的固定成本可带来企业利润大幅度的上升，即所谓的经营杠杆利益；当销售收入或销售量降低时，企业中一定量的固定成本可带来企业利润迅速下降，即所谓的经营杠杆风险。由此可见，经营杠杆作用是一把“双刃剑”，正确利用可为企业带来杠杆利益，反之，则会带来杠杆损失。所以企业在运用经营杠杆原理时，一定要充分考虑其双面性，仅仅追求经营杠杆利益的结果往往是遭受经营杠杆风险的打击，最终导致企业的财务危机。 企业因经营杠杆而导致财务危机的例子有许多，这是因为构成固定成本的因素就有许多，任何因素的过量使用如大规模投资带来的过大折旧及过高的管理费用等等，在企业销量无法保证的情况下，都会发生经营杠杆风险。本文采用广告费用作为固定成本，论述由它产生的经营杠杆的负效应，这是因为在市场经济下广告宣传已成为企业竞争的常用手段。如众所周知的中央电视台广告标王“秦池”酒厂的衰落就是最典型例子。1995年，秦池以6666万元的价格第一次夺得1996年中央电视台“标王”后，广告的轰动效应，使“秦池”一夜成名，“秦池”的品牌地位基本确立，市场份额也相应增加，当年“秦池”酒厂享受到了经营杠杆的积极作用。但这种局面并没有维持多久，当1996年11月秦池以亿元的天价再次成为1997年中央电视台的“标王”后，“秦池”为了在短时间内满足客户订单需求，竟采取收购散酒来勾兑，并被新闻媒介披露，产品质量、信用遭到严重破坏，1997年“秦池”的销售收入无法持续增长，此时亿广告费却使秦池陷入了难以自拔的财务危机之中。 三、财务杠杆的负效应 财务杠杆是指由于固定性财务费用的存在，企业息税前利润(EBIT)的微量变化所引起的每股收益(EPS)大幅度变动的现象。也就是，银行借款规模和利率水平一旦确定，其负担的利息水平也就固定不变。因此，企业盈利水平越高，扣除债权人拿走的某一固定利息之后，投资者（股东）得到的回报也就越多。相反，企业盈利水平低，债权人照样拿走某一固定的利息，剩余给股东的回报也就少了。在盈利水平低于利率水平的情况下，投资者不但得不到回报，甚至可能倒贴。由于利息是固定的，因此，举债具有财务杠杆效应。而财务杠杆效应是两方面的，既可以给企业带来正面、积极的影响，也可以带来负面、消极的影响。当总资产利润率大于利率时，举债给企业带来的是积极的正面影响；相反，当总资产利润率小于利率时，举债给企业带来的是负面、消极的影响。 韩国大宇集团的解散，就是财务杠杆消极作用影响的真实体现。大宇集团在政府政策和银行信贷的支持下，走的是一条“举债经营”之路。试图通过大规模举债，达到大规模扩张的目的，最后实现“市场占有率至上”的目标。当1997年亚洲金融危机爆发后，大宇集团已经显现出经营上的困难，其销售额和利润均不能达到预期的目的，此时如果大宇集团不再大量发行债券进行“借贷式经营”，而向韩国其他四大集团一样进行自律结构调整——重点改善财务结构，努力减轻债务负担，恐怕大宇集团今天仍是韩国的五大集团之一。然而，大宇却认为，只要提高开工率，增加销售额和出口就能躲过这场金融危机，于是，一意孤行地继续大量发行债券，进行“借贷式经营”。由于经营不善，加上资金周转困难，韩国政府于1999年7月26日下令债券银行接手对大宇集团进行结构调整，加快了这个负债累累的集团的解散速度。由此可见，大宇集团的举债经营所产生的财务杠杆效益是消极的，不仅难以提高企业的盈利能力，反而因巨大的偿付压力使企业陷入无法解脱的财务困境。 Financial crisis (Financial Distress) usually refers to business can not repay the debt due the difficulties and crises, the extreme form of corporate bankruptcy. When companies collapse of lack of funds and credit at the same time, enterprises will be irretrievable bankruptcy. Therefore, in order to prevent the financial crisis and the occurrence of insolvency, each company are looking for ways to prevent the financial crisis and save the crisis. Especially in April 20, 2001, China's securities market for the first case of delisting the company "PT Narcissus" become a reality, whether they are listed companies or non-listed companies to prevent financial crisis. In addition, China's imminent accession to WTO, domestic enterprises will face more intense competition, to be in the fierce competition in an invincible position, to strengthen the financial crisis early warning system is to enhance each enterprise should be an important aspect. In this paper, a number of crises in recent years, enterprises, bankrupt enterprises, and explore in the face of competition and development, financial crises caused by business reasons. First, diversification trap When the enterprise has developed to a certain extent, in order to avoid business risks, many companies are pursuing diversification business model, trying to take the healthy and stable business development. However, the reality is not only let people see the glory of successful enterprises, but also saw the diversification of financial crisis, the enterprise embarked on the path of the crisis or even bankruptcy. Therefore, diversification is not a business enterprise to avoid the risk of a panacea. Unless the appropriate use of, otherwise, business is very easy to fall into financial crisis. 1, theoretical portfolio of simple misuse. Portfolio theory is the theoretical basis for diversification, the theory holds that the risk of financial assets, there are two: First, the risk can not be dispersed or systematic risk, that is present in every securities, the portfolio is not to divert out the risk; First, the risk can be dispersed or non-systematic risk, which exists in the individual securities, you can swap portfolio to spread risks. Investors can hold a portfolio to spread the risk of non-system, the correlation coefficient between securities lower, the better risk diversification; as the number of portfolio securities increased, the more obvious effects of dispersion, when the stock reaches a certain number, the fully dispersed out of basic non-systemic risk. This principle applied to the production and operation activities, is the diversification enterprises. However, portfolio investment has its specific conditions, if not the blind application of the analysis, it has failed to achieve the role of risk avoidance, but have deepened the financial crisis. Investment portfolio theory is financial assets, financial assets investment divisibility, mobility and features such as compatibility, so investment in financial assets, do not have to consider the scale of investment, the investment of time constraints, as well as the number of investment projects and other factors, as long as the taking into account the relevance of financial assets, risk, reward and their mutual relations, and on the basis of risk - reward the choice to invest in financial assets to achieve the optimal choice. And diversification of the investment is physical assets, and its overall investment, non-reversible, time-binding characteristics, such as mutually exclusive. Therefore, when the diversification is not simply irrelevant to the multi-faceted investment in industry, but to take into account the investment objectives, financial situation and financial constraints occupied under the conditions of the Objective To compare the selection problem. Otherwise, the simple misuse of portfolio theory will lead to business investment in unrelated projects, accounting for more than a disorderly capital, inputs and so the phenomenon is greater than output, which eventually led to a lack of capital, liquidity, financial crisis. As we all know the rise and fall of the giant group is the best proof of this. 2, the loss of core competence of investment diversification. In corporate profits, market share, competitive factors such as the core, the core competitiveness of enterprises is to maintain the most important factors of competitive advantage, it is a competitive advantage and business development resources to support our long-term. It may appear to be advanced technology, or a service concept, its essence is a group of advanced technology and ability to aggregate. Despite the competition among enterprises usually pass the core competencies derived from the core product, the final product for the market, but its essence boils down to competition between core competencies. Only when we have the core of enterprise competitiveness, in order to have a lasting competitive advantage. Otherwise, only "a flash in the pan." The success of enterprises does not mean that time has been the core of enterprise competitiveness, the core competitiveness of enterprises rely on long-term cultivation. Is to say, only in order to maintain a diversified investment in the core competitiveness of enterprises as a means. From that point, enterprises should first have a core of competitive products, and then around its core products, core competitiveness should consider diversification. Not rooted in the core competitiveness of the diversification and expansion strategy can not be outside of nurturing a new core competence, the result can be the competitive advantage that also lost direct the performance of new projects is the main advantage of the diverted funds , but it does not have a corresponding advantage of the benefits but the main industry拖跨, which eventually led to the enterprise overall lack of funds. Second, the negative effects of operating leverage Principle of the modern enterprise management told us that decision-making in the operation of the operating costs of the use of fixed costs for businesses operating leverage. Specifically, when the sales revenue or sales growth, the enterprise in a certain amount of fixed costs can lead to a significant rise in corporate profits, the so-called interests of the operating lever; when the sale to lower income or sales, the enterprise must the amount of fixed costs can be brought about by the rapid decline in corporate profits, the so-called operating leverage risk. It can be seen that operating leverage is a "double-edged sword", the correct use of leverage for the interests of enterprises, on the contrary, it will bring loss of leverage. Therefore, in principle the use of operating leverage, we must take full account of its double-sided, and only the interests of the pursuit of operating leverage is often the result of the risk of being hit DOL, which eventually led to the financial crisis. Enterprises operating leverage caused by the financial crisis there are many examples, which constitute a fixed cost because there are many factors that any factors such as excessive use of large-scale investment is too large depreciation and inflated management fees, etc., in Enterprises can not guarantee sales, the operating leverage risk will occur. In this paper, as the fixed cost of advertising, on business generated from its negative effects of leverage, this is because the advertising in a market economy has become a common means of enterprise competitiveness. Such as the well-known advertising standard CCTV King "Qin pool," the winery is the most typical example of the decline. In 1995, Qin pool price of million yuan in the first won in 1996 China Central Television, "Standard King" after the sensational effect of advertising, so that "Qin pool" to become famous overnight, "Qin pool" basically established the brand, market share also a corresponding increase in the "Chin Chi" winery to enjoy a positive role of the operating lever. However, this situation is not how long, when in November 1996 Qin pool price of billion again in 1997 China Central Television's "Standard King", the "Chin Chi," a short period of time in order to meet the needs of customer orders, even taken to the acquisition of bulk wine blending, and the media revealed that the quality of products, the credit was severely damaged in 1997, "Qin Chi" unsustainable sales growth, 320 million advertising at this time Qin made it difficult to extricate themselves into a pool of financial crisis. Third, the negative effects of financial leverage Financial leverage refers to the financial costs as a result of the existence of fixed, pre-tax profits of enterprise income (EBIT) of the trace caused by changes in earnings per share (EPS) of the phenomenon of significant changes. That is, the size of bank borrowings and interest rates, once determined, the burden of a fixed rate of interest charged on it. Therefore, the higher the level of corporate profits, after deducting the creditor to take a fixed interest rate, investors (shareholders) get more returns. In contrast, low levels of corporate profits, the creditor still take a fixed interest rate, the remaining return to shareholders will be less. Level of profitability than in the case of the level of interest rates, investors will not return, and may even lose out. As a result of interest is fixed and, therefore, has a financial leverage effect of debt. The financial leverage effect is twofold, both to the enterprise have a positive, positive impact, it also brought about a negative, negative. When total assets profit margin is greater than interest rates, loans to enterprises is a positive a positive impact; the contrary, when the total assets of less than the interest rate margin, the debt to the enterprises is negative, negative. The dissolution of the Daewoo Group of South Korea, a negative effect on financial leverage is the true embodiment of the impact. Daewoo Group in the government policies and the support of bank credit, is taking the same "leverage" the road. Massive debt trying to achieve the purpose of large-scale expansion, the final realization of "the market share of first" goal. When the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Daewoo Group has demonstrated the difficulties of the operation, and its sales and profit can not achieve the intended purpose, at this time is no longer if a large number of Daewoo Group to issue bonds to carry out "loan operations" and to South Korea, like the other four groups to carry out structural adjustment and self-discipline - focus on improving the financial structure, and strive to alleviate the debt burden, I am afraid of the Daewoo Group in Korea today is still one of the five groups. However, the Daewoo is that as long as the operating rate to improve, increase sales and exports will be able to escape the financial crisis, therefore, continue to insist on the issuance of bonds, the "lending operations." As a result of poor management, combined with cash flow difficulties, the Korean government in July 26, 1999 ordered the bank to take over the bond of the Daewoo Group restructuring, the debt to accelerate the dissolution rate of the Group. This shows that the Daewoo Group's debt arising from the operating efficiency of financial leverage is negative, it is difficult not only to improve the profitability of enterprises, but due to tremendous pressure on enterprises to pay into inextricable financial difficulties.
什么是财务风险 财务风险是企业在财务管理过程中必须面对的一个现实问题，财务风险是客观存在的，企业管理者对财务风险只有采取有效措施来降低风险，而不可能完全消除风险。文章通过对企业财务风险类型分析，从中找出不同财务风险产生的具体原因，并试图探索出解决各类财务风险的有效方法。 当今世界上因财务风险而倒闭破产的公司，甚至是特大公司也不为少见，如2002年世界500强的安然就是一例。因此，忽视财务风险将给我们带来的后果是严重的。 [编辑]财务风险的定义和基本类型 财务风险是指企业在各项财务活动中由于各种难以预料和无法控制的因素，使企业在一定时期、一定范围内所获取的最终财务成果与预期的经营目标发生偏差，从而形成的使企业蒙受经济损失或更大收益的可能性。企业的财务活动贯穿于生产经营的整个过程中，筹措资金、长短期投资、分配利润等都可能产生风险。 根据风险的来源可以将财务风险划分为： [编辑]1.筹资风险 筹资风险指的是由于资金供需市场、宏观经济环境的变化，企业筹集资金给财务成果带来的不确定性。筹资风险主要包括利率风险、再融资风险、财务杠杆效应、汇率风险、购买力风险等。利率风险是指由于金融市场金融资产的波动而导致筹资成本的变动；再融资风险是指由于金融市场上金融工具品种、融资方式的变动，导致企业再次融资产生不确定性，或企业本身筹资结构的不合理导致再融资产生困难；财务杠杆效应是指由于企业使用杠杆融资给利益相关者的利益带来不确定性；汇率风险是指由于汇率变动引起的企业外汇业务成果的不确定性；购买力风险是指由于币值的变动给筹资带来的影响。 [编辑]2.投资风险 投资风险指企业投入一定资金后，因市场需求变化而影响最终收益与预期收益偏离的风险。企业对外投资主要有直接投资和证券投资两种形式。在我国，根据公司法的规定，股东拥有企业股权的25%以上应该视为直接投资。证券投资主要有股票投资和债券投资两种形式。股票投资是风险共担，利益共享的投资形式；债券投资与被投资企业的财务活动没有直接关系，只是定期收取固定的利息，所面临的是被投资者无力偿还债务的风险。投资风险主要包括利率风险、再投资风险、汇率风险、通货膨胀风险、金融衍生工具风险、道德风险、违约风险等。 [编辑]3.经营风险 经营风险又称营业风险，是指在企业的生产经营过程中，供、产、销各个环节不确定性因素的影响所导致企业资金运动的迟滞，产生企业价值的变动。经营风险主要包括采购风险、生产风险、存货变现风险、应收账款变现风险等。采购风险是指由于原材料市场供应商的变动而产生的供应不足的可能，以及由于信用条件与付款方式的变动而导致实际付款期限与平均付款期的偏离；生产风险是指由于信息、能源、技术及人员的变动而导致生产工艺流程的变化，以及由于库存不足所导致的停工待料或销售迟滞的可能；存货变现风险是指由于产品市场变动而导致产品销售受阻的可能；应收账款变现风险是指由于赊销业务过多导致应收账款管理成本增大的可能性，以及由于赊销政策的改变导致实际回收期与预期回收的偏离等。 [编辑]4.存货管理风险 企业保持一定量的存货对于其进行正常生产来说是至关重要的，但如何确定最优库存量是一个比较棘手的问题，存货太多会导致产品积压，占用企业资金，风险较高；存货太少又可能导致原料供应不及时，影响企业的正常生产，严重时可能造成对客户的违约，影响企业的信誉。 [编辑]5.流动性风险 流动性风险是指企业资产不能正常和确定性地转移现金或企业债务和付现责任不能正常履行的可能性。从这个意义上来说，可以把企业的流动性风险从企业的变现力和偿付能力两方面分析与评价。由于企业支付能力和偿债能力发生的问题，称为现金不足及现金不能清偿风险。由于企业资产不能确定性地转移为现金而发生的问题则称为变现力风险。 [编辑]企业财务风险的成因 企业财务风险产生的原因很多，既有企业外部的原因，也有企业自身的原因，而且不同的财务风险形成的具体原因也不尽相同。企业产生财务风险的一般原因有以下几点： 1.企业财务管理宏观环境的复杂性是企业产生财务风险的外部原因。企业财务管理的宏观环境复杂多变，而企业管理系统不能适应复杂多变的宏观环境。财务管理的宏观环境包括经济环境、法律环境、市场环境、社会文化环境、资源环境等因素，这些因素存在企业之外，但对企业财务管理产生重大的影响。 2.企业财务管理人员对财务风险的客观性认识不足。财务风险是客观存在的，只要有财务活动，就必然存在着财务风险。然而在现实工作中，许多企业的财务管理人员缺乏风险意识。风险意识的淡薄是财务风险产生的重要原因之一。 3.财务决策缺乏科学性导致决策失误。财务决策失误是产生财务风险的又一主要原因。避免财务决策失误的前提是财务决策的科学化。 4.企业内部财务关系不明。这是企业产生财务风险的又一重要原因，企业与内部各部门之间及企业与上级企业之间，在资金管理及使用、利益分配等方面存在权责不明、管理不力的现象，造成资金使用效率低下，资金流失严重，资金的安全性、完整性无法得到保证。这主要存在于一些上市公司的财务关系中，很多集团公司母公司与子公司的财务关系十分混乱，资金使用没有有效的监督与控制。 [编辑]化解财务风险的主要措施 企业财务风险是客观存在的，因此安全消除财务风险是不可能的，也是不现实的。对于企业财务风险，只能采取尽可能的措施，将其影响降低到最低的程度。 1.化解筹资风险的主要措施： 当企业的经营业务发生资金不足的困难时，可以采取发行股票、发行债券或银行借款等方式来筹集所需资本。 2.化解投资风险的主要措施： 从风险防范的角度来看，投资风险主要应该通过控制投资期限、投资品种来降低。一般来说，投资期越长，风险就大，因此企业应该尽量选择短期投资。而在进行证券投资的时候，应该采取分散投资的策略，选择若干种股票组成投资组合，通过组合中风险的相互抵消来降低风险。在对股票投资进行风险分析中，可以采用β系数的分析方法或资本资产定价模型来确定不同证券组合的风险。β系数小于1，说明它的风险小于整个市场的平均风险，因而是风险较小的投资对象。 3.化解汇率风险的主要措施： （1）选择恰当合同货币。在有关对外贸易和借贷等经济交易中，选择何种货币作为计价货币直接关系到交易主体是否将承担汇率风险。为了避免汇率风险，企业应该争取使用本国货币作为合同货币，在出品、资本输出时使用硬通货，而在进口、资本输入时使用软通货。同时在合同中加列保值条款等措施。 （2）通过在金融市场进行保值操作。主要方法有现汇交易、期货交易、期汇交易、期权交易、借款与投资、利率—货币互换、外币票据贴现等。 （3）对于经济主体在资产负债表会计处理过程中产生的折算风险，一般是实行资产负债表保值来化解。这种方法要求在资产负债表上以各种功能货币表示的受险资产与受险负债的数额相等，从而使其折算风险头寸为零，只有这样，汇率变动才不致带来折算上的损失。 （4）经营多样化。即在国际范围内分散其销售、生产地及原材料来源地，通过国际经营的多样化，当汇率出现变化时，管理部门可以通过比较不同地区生产、销售和成本的变化趋利避害，增加在汇率变化有利的分支机构的生产，而减少汇率变化不利的分支机构的生产。 （5）财务多样化。即在多个金融市场以多种货币寻求资金的来源和资金去向，实行筹资多样化和投资多样化，这样在有的外币贬值，有的外币升值的情况下，公司就可以使绝大部分的外汇风险相互抵消，从而达到防范风险的目的。 4.化解流动性风险的主要措施： 企业的流动性较强的资产主要包括现金、存货、应收账款等项目。防范流动性风险的目的是在保持资产流动性的前提下，实现利益的最大化。因此应该确定最优的现金持有量、最佳的库存量以及加快应收账款的回收等。我们都很清楚持有现金有一个时间成本的问题，手中持有现金过多，显然会由于较高的资金占用而失去其他的获利机会，而持有现金太少，又会面临资金不能满足流动性需要的风险。因此企业应该确定一个最优的现金持有量，从而在防范流动性风险的前提下实现利益的最大化。 5.化解经营风险的主要措施： 在其他因素不变的情况下，市场对企业产品的需求越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越确定，经营风险也就越小。因此企业在确定生产何种产品时，应先对产品市场做好调研，要生产适销对路的产品，销售价格是产品销售收入的决定因素之一，销售价格越稳定，销售收入就越稳定，企业未来的经营收益就越稳定，经营风险也就越小。 来自""The Infrared Technology as the humanity knew that the nature, the exploration natural one kind of new modern tool, has been applied generally by various countries in the biology, the medicine, the geoscience and so on scientific field as well as the military reconnaissance aspect. But is very complex as a result of the goal infrared radiation, the factor are many, the infrared hot image's clarity is inferior to the visible image far, but people in use infrared hot chart analysis question time, hoped frequently simultaneously sees the visible light information and the infrared information. As the computer vision domain and an image understanding's important technology, the image fusion simultaneously observed the infrared hot information and the visible light information for the people have provided an effective method. This article research mainly take the infrared imagery and the visible light image as the information processing goal, through will carry on the contrastive analysis to each image fusion processing method, will summarize an effect good method, will then use with the matlab procedure to realize these methods and to carry on the comparison again to the fusion effect. this article first introduced the image fusion engineering research background and the domestic and foreign research tendency. Then introduced the image fusion's basic concept, the level, have made the comparison to each level's fusion. Then introduced the image fusion's Pyramid algorithm, and has carried on the analysis, the comparison to these algorithms, finally the matlab procedure has realized these methods. as a result of the wavelet transformation in the information analysis and the information processing domain's good performance, this article used the great length to introduce that the wavelet the knowledge, realized the image fusion with the fusion effect good small wave packet's method, through used the objective indicator the appraisal to prove based on the small wave packet's fusion was one very good fusion method. key word: Image fusion, wavelet transformation Pyramid algorithm, multi-resolution analysis, fusion rule, fusion appraisal
QI YE IS DA FU PONG PONG PONG!-Wang Kailiang.
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去百度搜索，需要什么语言直接在线翻译就OK啦
你现在在学校么？建议你到学校的图书馆去查（一般每个学校都会买网站使用权，这些特定的网站才有学术型的论文或者期刊的，一般我们自己网进不去这些网站），上中国知网，你将你论文题目输入，选择相似查找，和你论文题目一样或者相似的论文就会罗列出来了，然后你根据自己需要选择就可以。
外文文献翻译成中文文献会根据文献的性质和学科属性用《中图法》来分类。A 马克思主义、列宁主义、毛泽东思想、邓小平理论 N 自然科学总论B 哲学、宗教 O 数理科学和化学C 社会科学总论 P 天文学、地球科学D 政治、法律 Q 生物科学E 军事 R 医药、卫生F 经济 S 农业科学G 文化、科学、教育、体育 T 工业技术H 语言、文字 U 交通运输I 文学 V 航空、航天J 艺术 X 环境科学、安全科学K 历史、地理 Z 综合性图书 二、简 表（到二级）A 马克思主义、列宁主义、毛泽东思想1 马克思、恩格斯著作2 列宁著作3 斯大林著作4 毛泽东著作5 马克思、恩格斯、列宁、斯大林、毛泽东著作汇编7 马克思、恩格斯、列宁、斯大林、毛泽东的生平和传纪8 马克思主义、列宁主义、毛泽东思想学习和研究B 哲学0 哲学理论1 世界哲学2 中国哲学3 亚洲哲学4 非洲哲学5 欧洲哲学6 大洋洲哲学7 美洲哲学80 思维科学81 逻辑学82 伦理学83 美学84 心理学9 无神论、宗教C 会科学总论1 社会科学现状、概况2 机关、团体、会议3 社会科学研究方法4 社会科学教育、教学5 社会科学参考工具书8 统计学91 社会学92 人口学93 管理学[94]系统论（系统学、系统工程）96 人才学D 政治、法律0 政治理论1/3 共产主义运动、共产党4 工人、农民、妇女运动与组织45 青年、学生运动与组织5/7 世界各国政治8 外交、国际关系9 法律E 军事O 军事理论1 世界各国军事2 军事史3 军事技术4 合成军5 陆军6 海军7 空军81 战略导弹部队82 公安部队、武装警察83 民兵84 其它军队F 经济0 政治经济学1 世界各国经济概况、经济史、经济地理2 经济计划与管理3 农业经济4 工业经济5 交通运输经济6 邮电经济7 贸易经济G 文化、科学、教育、体育0 文化理论1 世界各国文化事业概况2 信息与知识传播3 科学、科学研究4 教育8 体育H 语言、文字0 语言学1 汉语2 中国少数民族语言3 常用外国语4 诸语系、语言9 国际辅助语I 文学0 文学理论1 文学作品综合集2 诗歌作品3 戏剧作品4 小说作品5 报告文学作品6 散文作品69 杂著作品7 民间文学作品8 儿童文学作品9 少数民族文学99 宗教文学作品J 艺术0 艺术理论1 世界各国艺术概况2 美术3 连环图画、低幼画册4 音乐、舞蹈5 戏剧、电影、电视艺术K 历史、地理0 史学理论1 世界史2 中国史3/7各国史81 传记85 文物考古89 风俗习惯9 地理N 自然科学总论0 自然科学理论与方法论1 自然科学现状、概况2 自然科学机关、团体、会议3 自然科学研究方法4 自然科学教育、教学5 自然科学丛书、文集、连续性出版物6 自然科学参考工具书7 自然科学文献检索工具书O 数理科学和化学1 数学3 力学4 物理学6 化学8 晶体学P 天文学、地球科学1 天文学2 测绘学3 地球物理学4 气象学5 地质学7 海洋学9 自然地理学Q 生物科学1 普通生物学2 细胞学3 遗传学4 生物学5 生物化学6 分子生物学7 分子生物学81 生物工程学89 环境生物学91 古生物学93 微生物学94 植物学95 动物学96 昆虫学98 人类学R 医药、卫生1 预防医学、卫生学2 中国医学3 基础医学4 临床医学5 内科学6 外科学71 妇产科学72 儿科学73 肿瘤学74 神经病学与精神病学75 皮肤病学与性病学76 耳鼻咽喉科学77 眼科学78 口腔科学78 外国民族医学8 特种医学9 药学S 农业科学1 农业基础科学2 农业工程3 农学（农艺学）4 植物保护5 农作物6 园艺7 林业8 畜牧、兽医、狩猎、蚕、蜂9 水产、渔业T 工业技术TB 一般工业技术TD 矿业工程TE 石油、天然气工业TF 冶金工业TG 金属学、金属工艺TH 机械、仪表工业TJ 武器工业TK 动力工程TL 原子能技术TM 电工技术TN 无线电电子学、电信技术TP 自动化技术、计算技术TQ 化学工业TS 轻工业、手工业TU 建筑科学TV 水利工程U 交通运输1 综合运输2 铁路运输4 公路运输6 水路运输8 航空运输V 航空、航天1 航空、航天技术的研究与探索2 航空4 航天（宇宙航行）7 航空、航天医学X 环境科学、劳动保护科学（安全科学）1 环境科学基础理论2 环境综合研究3 环境保护管理4 灾害及其防治5 环境污染及其防治7 三废处理与综合利用8 环境质量评价与环境监测9 劳动保护科学（安全科学）Z 综合性图书1 丛书2 百科全书、类书3 辞典4 论文集、全集、选集、杂著5 年鉴、年刊6 期月、连续性出版物8 图书目录、文摘、索引
茶叶论文外文文献及翻译
什么意思？！你有没有中文阿？！有中文才能翻译哦！
提供一些绿茶论文的参考文献，供参考。 [1] 韩立新,李冉. ICP-AES法测定茶叶、茶水中的矿物质和微量元素[J]光谱学与光谱分析, 2002,(02) . [2] 陈君实,许勋仁,梁秀芳,徐长生,马建国,刘明,杨如璞. 茶叶含氟量与不同水温浸出氟的实验研究[J]环境与健康杂志, 1986,(03) . [3] 赵保路,王建潮,忻文娟,陈雨停,陈维昌. 用ESR检测过氧亚硝基氧化二甲基亚砜产生的甲基自由基[J]科学通报, 1996,(10) . [4] 赵保路. 茶多酚的抗氧化作用[J]科学通报, 2002,(16) . [5] 梁春穗,李海. 茶叶中铝的来源及溶解性研究[J]现代预防医学, 1996,(04) . [6] 高舸陶,锐成. 茶叶中微量元素Cr、Cu、Fe、Mn、Ni、Zn的溶出率及化合态研究[J]卫生研究, 2000,(04) . [7] 黄志勇,经媛元,杨妙峰,孟庆祥,王小如. ICP-MS测定茶叶中微量元素含量及其溶出特性的研究[J]厦门大学学报(自然科学版), 2003,(05) . [8] 高舸,陶锐. 茶叶中铝的卫生学实验研究[J]中国公共卫生, 2001,(03) . [9] 蒋建伟,何文珊,严玉霞,岑颖洲. 茶多酚的离体抗氧化作用[J]中国病理生理杂志, 1999,(06) . [10] 邓泽元,陶秉莹,李晓玲,何金明,陈义风,褚芳. 茶叶抗氧化功能的研究[J]营养学报, 1998,(03) . [11] 宇莉,马毛弟,黄培林. 贵州茶矿质元素含量分析与茶叶质量的关系[J]微量元素与健康研究, 1998,(02) . [12] Zhou B, Jia Z S, Chen Z H, et al. Synergic antioxidant effect of green tea polyphenols with a-tocophenol on free radical initiation of linoleic acid in micelles .J Chem Soc Perkin Trans, 2000,2, 2 :785 . [13] Inanami O, Watanabe Y, Syuto B, et al. Oral administration of (-)catechin protects against ischemia-reperfusion-induced neuronul death in the gerbil .Free Rad Res, 1998,29, 29 :359-365 . [14] Zhao B L, Li X J, Xin W J. ESR study on oxygen consumption during the respiratory burst of human polymophonuclear leukocytes .Cell Biol Intern Report, 1989,13, 13 :317-325 .采纳哦
标点符号问题或正文结果与图片结果不符合等笔误问题，这一种我们只需要在自己的文章中核实后进行改正即可；北京译顶科技做的不错，可以联系他们一下若是还有不明白可以统一去知道了解下
毕业论文外文翻译：将外文参考文献翻译成中文版本。
翻译要求：
1、选定外文文献后先给指导老师看，得到老师的确认通过后方可翻译。
2、选择外文翻译时一定选择外国作者写的文章，可从学校中知网或者外文数据库下载。
3、外文翻译字数要求3000字以上，从外文文章起始处开始翻译，不允许从文章中间部分开始翻译，翻译必须结束于文章的一个大段落。
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明,不再出现于文后参考文献中。外文参考文献就是指论文是引用的文献原文是国外的，并非中国的。
原文就是指原作品,原件，即作者所写作品所用的语言。如莎士比亚的《罗密欧与朱丽叶》原文是英语。
译文就是翻译过来的文字，如在中国也可以找到莎士比亚《罗密欧与朱丽叶》的中文版本，这个中文版本就称为译文。
主要标准
翻译是语际交流过程中沟通不同语言的桥梁。一般来说，翻译的标准主要有两条：忠实和通顺。
忠实
是指忠实于原文所要传递的信息，也就是说，把原文的信息完整并且准确地表达出来，使译文读者得到的信息与原文读者得到的信息大致相同。
通顺
是指译文规范、明白易懂，没有文理不通、结构混乱、逻辑不清的现象。