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中西方文化论文1000字怎么写才好看

发布时间:2024-07-06 16:10:56

中西方文化论文1000字怎么写才好看

Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day- Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy " It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example:   brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film) Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly C Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun R China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has 中西方文化差异表现在方方面面,从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在,下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异,中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义,在西方又表示一种涵义,甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。(一)red(红色)无论是在英语国家还是在中国,红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中,这些日子常用红色字体,因此,red letter day:指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”,因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组:red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语,翻译成英语,可不一定用“red”例如: 红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine (二) yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中,yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思,例如:a yellow dog 可鄙的人,卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思,如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而,英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思,如blue jokes(下流的玩笑), blue films(黄色电影)等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先,中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关:中国人比较保守,喜欢热闹,思维较古板,所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放,对于婚礼的要求也比较低,他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中:随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯,娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去,新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上,将女儿的一生托付给新郎,所有人的目光注视着这对新人,幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次,造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主,而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地,拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the W" The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well- As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte, Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng' In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考,请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

你可以去看看其他网址上面写的范文。希望能帮上你

二、轴心时代的变革 轴心时代是二十年代带哲学家雅斯贝尔斯在他的《历史的起源与目标》里提出的概念。他说,从公元前600年左右一直到公元之交的600年时间以内,在旧大陆的三个文明地区,不约而同地出现了一批伟大的人物。三大文明就是指西方、印度和中国。而这些伟大的人物对自己的文明所产生的影响,是其后没有任何人可以望其项背的,他们基本奠定了这三种文化的精神脊梁。比如说西方的苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里斯多德一直到后来的耶酥都出现在这段时间,印度的佛教创始人释迦摹尼,中国的孔子孟子老子庄子等诸子百家全部都是出现在这个时代。所以这个时代被称为“轴心时代”。 我认为,就这个概念的提出来说,是雅斯贝尔斯的一个伟大的创举,但是比较遗憾的是有两个问题他没有阐述清楚。第一是为什么会出现这种近乎奇迹的情况?第二是在这个时代中西方文化究竟发生了怎样的变化? 关于这两个问题,我在一本书里谈到:首先看中国,它的变革是经历了一个三步曲的过程。轴心时代来临之前的商代,中国和其他原始文明一样,都是一种亲代文化,都带有很浓郁的迷信色彩。我们最早的甲骨文就是一种专门用于占卜的宗教文字,为祭祀所用。西方学术界有一种观点,就是文明最早产生于寺庙之中,庙就是最早的城市中心。“尊神祀鬼”是殷商人的特点。帝是他们崇拜的最高神,帝在甲骨文里是代表一种花蕊,象征着生生不息的本根,也就是对生殖的崇拜。 周朝取代商代,不仅仅是政权的更替,更为主要是宗教的变化。周人不再相信自然神,天成为至高神,天和周人没有任何的血缘关系,他是一个普遍意义上的神。那么他根据什么来保佑人们呢?是根据德,“皇天无亲,唯德是辅”所以,周代呢就把德看作是取得天命的一个核心。而周代的“德”还不是指内心的道德,而是指外在的礼仪。“遵礼守法”是为德,“非礼枉法则无德”,所以周朝是一个非常讲究礼仪的朝代。“遵礼敬德”是周人的一个显著特点,所以从这一点上可以看到他们的精神内核的变化。 接下去是先秦的孔子孟子们所进行的儒家思想的变革。变革的最重要的就是把外在的礼仪规范转化成为一种内心的道德自觉——仁。这个变化是中国轴心时代发生的最重要的变化。所以孔子一生当中都在谈一个字“仁”,这是儒家思想的一个核心概念。“仁”是“礼”的基础,人首先要有内在之仁,才会有外在之礼。所以“礼蹦乐坏”的实质是人心不古,人心不仁。所以,表面上看孔子好像是一个守旧派,面对“礼蹦乐坏”感到很悲哀,而事实上他是一个革新派,他不是要恢复周礼,而是要把周礼的外在之礼建立在内心之仁的基础上。尽管对“仁”有很多种理解,我们认为最为经典的就是“仁者爱人”,就是爱人之心。后来,我们又把它进一步理解为“忠恕之道”也就是“己所不欲,勿施于人”,“己欲欲欲人,己欲达达人”啊!说到底也就是仁爱之心。 到了孟子,对此又有了系统化的解释,他认为“仁”就是“亲亲”嘛。就是每个人都爱自己的亲人。所谓“老吾老以及人之老,幼吾幼以及人之幼”,由此推出一个社会的泛爱关系,然后,他提出“恻隐之心,仁也;羞恶之心,义也;恭敬之心,礼也;是非之心,智也;”“仁义礼智“之心是与生俱来的。因此,一个人只要去向自己本性发掘,就一定能把自己本性中的美好善良的东西发掘出来,成为一个善人和圣人。因此,只要每个人都“修身、齐家”就能“治国、平天下”,最后达到一个大同的理想世界。 这就是轴心时代,中国文化完成的一个重大变革,这个变革决定了中国文化的基本精神,是注重现世的人自我的道德修养,而不太关注外在的上帝鬼神之类的东西。也就是说,中国儒家把大同社会的理想最后落实到每个人的修身养性的工夫之上。 同样,西方文化在这个时候也发生了很大的变化,通过希腊文化、到罗马文化以及基督教文化,它是一个超越的过程,而不是内敛的过程。到最后,中国文化强调一切从内心做起,西方文化强调一切由外在的上帝决定即上帝决定论。中世纪有一句名言:没有任何一只麻雀从树上掉下来,不是出于上帝的特殊意志。(笑)中国文化强调内心的修炼,“内盛外王,成己成物 ”,由内向外。所以,这就是中西方文化在“轴心时代”发生的根本变化。 三、中西文化的基本精神 中国完成了由外向内的收敛的过程以后,所有的知识分子就开始在内心的道德上下工夫了。因此,从这个时候开始,中国人特别是儒家的知识分子对外在的宗教逐渐淡漠起来,他们更多是注重自己内心的道德自觉,而不是外在的上帝决定论。所以从这个角度讲,中国文化比西方文化更具有人文主义的色彩,而不是神本主义。 但是,中国人对六合之外的东西是不太谈的,采取“存而不论”的态度。儒家知识分子对鬼神一贯采取“敬而远之”的态度。推崇父母在世的时候尽孝,君主在世的时候尽忠,讲究的是现世的人与人之间的关系的道德标准,而不讲究彼岸的那些东西。其实这个思想在周公旦的时候就说的非常清楚了:“圣人以神道设教,而天下归”,也就是说,说的是鬼神,其实是用鬼神来推行道德教化,是劝告你此生此世好好的做善事。孔子也始终对鬼神之事不感兴趣,“子不语怪力乱神”之事,“六合之外,存而不论”。孔子的很多话语都表明了他是一个彻底的无神论者。一次他的一个弟子问他“人死后,有知也?无知也?”,孔子的回答可谓充分表现了他的大智慧:“吾欲言有知,又恐孝子贤孙妨生送死;吾欲言无知,又恐不孝子孙弃而不葬;至于死后有知无知,死后自知之”。(大笑)也就是说,论鬼神的目的是为了起到教化人从善的,无论多么高深玄奥的东西,都必须以现实的行为准则为落脚点,从善、积德,方能“修身、齐家、治国、平天下”,这就是中国文化的基本内涵,是一种协调的现实精神。在西方,学术界称它是一种伦理文化。 西方文化主要是以基督教文化为主,它是一种超越的浪漫精神。它不断地超越现实,对六合之外的事情更为关注。这个问题前面已经讲了很多,在此只是做一个总结。下面讲第四个问题

中西方文化论文1000字怎么写才好

内容摘要:中国当代的主流文化是以马克思主义为思想导向的,面向现代化、面向世界、面向未来的,正在形成中国特色社会主义文化。以人本精神、科学精神、自由与平等为主流的西方文化,在当今的西方社会中仍然占有十分重要的地位。本文将从分析中西文化的现状出发,论述这一分析对构建中国特色社会主义文化的现实意义。关键词:中国文化;西方文化;现状;比较;现实意

从文化要素方面考虑中西文化的差异比较全面。即下文提及的知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等方面。 文化要素即文化所包含的各种基本成分。综合前述各种描述,知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等都是文化的要素,举不胜举。为了便于理解和把握,社会学家把文化要素分成以下几类。1.物质要素即文化的物质部分,包括人类创造出来的一切物质产品,其中尤以生产工具最为重要。人类创造文化,必须通过有形的制造品表现出来,如器皿、布衣、建筑物、水坝、公园等改造自然所使用的生产工具,反映了人的需要和技术发展水平,反映了人类改造自然的能力,因此它在各种物质要素中是起决定作用的要素。人们对时代的划分有时是以使用什么样的生产工具为标准的,如石器时代、青铜器时代、铁器时代、机器时代、电气时代等。人们也用使用工具的特性来表示不同的文化,如"青铜器文化"、"电气文化"等。可见工具及使用工具制造出来的物质产业是文化不可缺少的要素。2.精神要素即精神文化,包括哲学、科学、宗教、艺术以及各种思想观念,其中尤以价值观念最为重要。精神文化是文化不可或缺的部分。人们改造自然与社会,创造和享受文化的活动无不是在一定的思想观念指导和推动下进行的,所以观念形态的文化是文化要素中最有活力的部分,尤其是价值观念更是文化的精髓或灵魂,是核心要素。价值观念是人们判断是非、选择行为方向和目标的标准。人们追求什么,鄙弃什么,是由价值观念决定的。价值观是在社会共同生活中培养起来的,所以在一个群体或社会中,会形成大体一致的价值观,这就是群体或社会的价值。群体或社会的价值决定着这个群里或社会的特有生活式样。3.语言和象征符号要素人的交往只有借助语言和符号才能进行,一切知识的继承和传递也只有借助语言和符号才能实现。马林诺夫斯基认为,语言不仅是一个工具体系,而且是一套长期养成发音的习惯。人类学家们长期考察发现,世界上大约有2800种不同的语言,其中大部分语言没有共同的词汇。所以并不是任何不同的语言都可以互相翻译的。译文不可能跟原文完全响应。这说明语言是人们观察世界(甚至是改造世界)的工具。人们用语言在自己的头脑里建造了客观的世界,所以语言不同,对世界的反映也不同。例如对颜色和味道的表达,有的语言词汇很多,可以区分许多极细微的差别,而有的语言词汇很少,区分力很低。中国人常用酸、甜、苦、辣、涩来形容味道,难道世界上所有物质就只有这五种味道吗?中文里有"你"和"您"两个词来表示第二人称,英文中就只有一个"you",以致当中国人面对年长尊贵的美国客人说话时,很不好意思直呼"you"。其实英美人的语言中对年老位高的人表示尊敬,不是用一个词,而是用句型的不同来表达的。这就是中美之间文化的不同。符号是一种无声的语言,也是社会互动的过程中不可缺少的手段,甚至比语言还运用得更广泛。符号有身体的姿势、表情、动作、声音、图形、标志等。有的符号是表征的,如国徽、军旗,有的符号是指意的,如禁止通行的符号,前者含义丰富,后者意义明确。符号的不同也是文化特色的表现。4.规范体系有些人类学家把文化归结为人的行为规范和模式,足见行为规范和模式对于文化的重要性。人们行为办事要有规矩,不同的人办不同的事,要守不同的规矩。规矩就是社会规矩,是人们在社会互动过程中根据需要指定出来或衍生出来的,它是一定的价值观念的具体化,是支撑价值观念的。各种规范互相配合共同调节人们的各种社会行为,以维护社会秩序。世界各国规矩之多,差距之大,令人茫然。不懂规矩,手足无措,说明不懂规范性文化就办不成事。一个不懂宴会礼仪的人参加宴会会感到局促不安,不能顺利地交往;相反在一个普通的家庭聚会上使用正规宴会的礼仪,就令人觉得装腔作势、可笑。规范是一个群体和社会文化的外部表现,所以了解一个群体和社会的文化,首先是从认识规范开始,进而才能达到文化的核心--价值观念立夫经过多年的深思熟虑得出一个结论:中西文明之所以走向不同、发展不同、结果不同,根本是由于中西思维方式的不同使然。思维方式的不同,决定了人类观察世界、处理问题的角度和方法的不同,继而在建立思想理论、构造科学体系、创设技术系统、设定经济体制等方方面面也都不同,甚至人的脾气性格行为、价值观都有不同,最终必然导致文明的走向、发展、结果的统统不同。 举一个现今正在争论的中医为例,中医和西医正是中西两种思维方式演化出的不同学说体系。西医是科学的一种即医学,它完全是用西方的思维方式即形式逻辑构造起来并由实证方法证明的科学体系。中医确实不应该叫科学,中医处处所体现的是中国的思维方式,以及由此种方式格物致知最终才形成的医道。中医无愧于真理,而且它不但能治已病,还能治未病,它完全是由中国思维方式演化出的理论体系。因此中西医是建立在两种思维方式即两种对客观认知与评价体系之上的不同的理论体系。现实当中正是因为中西医的上述不同才使其各有所长、各有所短,所以也就有了今天中西医的结合即两者的相济为用。 西方的逻辑思维、实证方法演绎了西方灿烂辉煌的现代文明,这是世人所熟知并津津乐道的。但是,人们对中国传统的用以格物致知的思维方式却知之甚少,以至今日也无人把它界说认识清楚。这既是最大的悲哀,也是我们中国人面临的最具挑战的并亟待回答的大课题之一。 不能准确、全面、深刻地认识我们自己的中国传统的思维方式,就不可能真正知道这种思维方式的妙处、价值与局限,更不能正确评价和认识我们伟大的古代文明。我经常在问在想为什么春秋战国时期的中国,诸子百家精湛、丰富、深刻的学说,竟如雨后春笋一样地突然暴发?其实仔细想来一个极重要的条件即主观条件,就是中国传统的思维方式在面对并解决非常复杂深刻的客观问题时,已经变得非常地成熟了,可以说到了炉火纯青的地步。这其实恰是中华民族对人类贡献的一大精神硕果,正是这种思维方式影响了我们民族的方方面面,演化出了一切一切。当到了明末清初的时候,随着章回小说的精采纷呈,我们的古代文明的一切方面就全部发展到了极致。 比较中西两种思维方式,可知两者各执一端,各有短长,其不同恰是相反相成,故能相互比较、相互对照、相互启发,以至于相辅相成、相济为用,这是中国与西方各自对人类最伟大的贡献,因而是人类的两大瑰宝。立夫敢于大胆断言,这两种思维方式将共存共济、和而不同地发展下去,直到人类不再存在的那一天。 一百年来我们一直在学习西方,今天我们有了强大的物质基础,取得了初步的成就,面对复杂多变的现实,我们痛感还是少了什么,于是越来越多的人们开始对我们自己传统的思维方式与古代文明重新加以审视,由此我们有希望、有条件比西方人较早地把握这两大法宝,去迎接、去拼搏中华民族伟大复兴的世纪。 由此立夫写了《二十一世纪必将是中华民族的世纪而且是中华民族伟大复兴的世纪》和《中华民族传统的思维方式以及演化出的古代文化为什么必将发生最伟大的维新》,以期抛砖引玉,聆教大家。

Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the W" The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well- As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte, Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng' In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考,请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

中西方文化论文1000字怎么写才好写

论文的6要素人物、时间、地点、事件的起因、经过和结果2.论文的人称第一人称和第三人称。3.论文的线索:1以时间转移为线索2以一人为线索3以一事为线索4以一物为线索4.论文的顺序:顺叙、倒叙、插叙5.论文的划分按事件和发展过程、空间转换、内容变化、人物、场景变化、感情变化、表达方式的变换来划分6.论文的表达方式:叙述、描写(语言,动作,外貌,心理,神态,环境等或正面,侧面)、议论、抒情、说明等7.论文的语言的特点:准确,生动

中西方文化对比——中西方小说的比较 一、中西方小说的发展史 中西方的小说,都是以神话传说为其渊源的。古时候,科学不发达,出于对大自然的敬畏,劳动人民想象出了许多主宰世间的“神”,对神人格化的描写,就是神话;将人神化的描写,就是传说。中国的盘古开天地的故事,三皇五帝的故事,西方的希腊神话,罗马神话,北欧神话等都是其中的典型作品。 东西方最初的小说,是与历史紧密相连的,是作为史料的补充记载事件的。中国先秦散文中的寓言故事,汉代史书中的人物传记,魏晋南北朝的志怪、志人小说;西方古巴比伦的《吉加美士史诗》,古希腊的《荷马史诗》《伊索寓言》等都属于这一类小说,这类小说已具有小说讲求虚构的特点,但仍不是文人的创作,是直接从民间搜集记录下来的,所以这类小说情节比较简单,文笔比较粗糙。班固所说的“街谈巷语,道听途说者之造”是对这类小说准确、形象的评价。 中国的小说是到唐代才脱离历史记录而成为文学创作的。唐代的文化有了很大的发展,文人的思想也更加开阔,这时传奇应运而生,李朝威的《柳毅传》、白居易的《长恨歌》、陈鸿的《长恨歌传》等,都是依照传说创造而成的。唐代小说多为虚构想象而讲求文采,不仅仅是历史性质的东西了,但作为史的志怪志人小说也并没停止。传奇小说到宋代就逐渐衰落了,随之而兴起的话本,经过文人加工就变成了许多话本小说和演义小说,如《三国演义》《水浒传》《西游记》等。这类小说是文人采用民间创作而再创作的,以描绘精彩动人的情节场面和塑造生动活跃的人物性格见长,有明显的说书人的语言风格。由这里再发展,便成为文人的独立创作而不再加民间的东西来加工了,这一类代表作是《金瓶梅》,它开辟一条写平凡人和生活的道路,是现实主义文学得到了长足的发展,而后的《红楼梦》更是把中国古代现实主义小说推到了顶峰。“五四”以后,中国小说家开始借鉴西方小说的写作手法,逐步走出了一条新路。 西方小说,则是在“文艺复兴”后快速的发展、成熟起来的。中世纪的西方小说发展近乎停滞,14世纪末的“文艺复兴”推翻了教会对文学的控制后,15世纪末西方出现了提倡思想自由和个性解放,以描写现实生活和刻画各阶层的人物形象为内容的人文主义小说,这类小说是为配合当时欧洲反封建而产生的,同时它也定下了西方小说以记叙凡人凡事为主的基调。意大利 伽丘的《十日谈》,西班牙塞万提斯的《堂吉诃德》等是这类小说的代表作品。随之出现是古典主义小说,其主张用典雅的民族规范语言去写作,这种小说在17世纪的法国发展得最完备。代表作为注 高乃依的《熙德》,古典主义小说的的兴起使西方小说语言得到了一次大幅的提高。18世纪开始流行以宣传科学知识,启蒙大众意识为目的的启蒙主义小说,其中比较著名的有德国歌德的《浮士德》,英国笛福的《鲁滨逊飘流记》,斯威夫特的《格列佛游记》等,这类小说的出现是为了给当时的资产阶级革命大造舆论。19世纪,浪漫主义小说,现实主义小说和批判现实主义小说交替占据小说领域的主导地位。浪漫主义小说如法国雨果的《巴黎圣母院》、歌德的《少年维特之烦恼》等,富于想象、构思奇特、语言奔放、感情炽烈。现实小说则着力反映生活的本质,描绘典型人物和典型生活现象,英国的狄更斯、法国的都德为这类小说的代表作家。批判现实主义小说着力暴露封建制度的腐朽没落和资本主义社会的黑暗,深刻批判现实的罪恶,法国巴尔扎克和莫泊桑,英国的夏洛蒂、勃朗特,。俄国的托尔斯泰、陀斯妥耶夫斯基,美国的马克·吐温等一大批作家的作品都属于这一类。时值今日,这三类小说仍是西方文坛最主要的三类小说。 东西方小说发展史就大致如此。 二、中西方小说的特点 除了小说的基本特点外,中西方小说还具有如下各自的特点: 1、中国传统小说注意人物行动、语言和细节的描写,在矛盾冲突中展示人物形象,但性格单一,少变化,缺乏主体感。西方小说则多注重人物的心理描写,强调挖掘人物内心的潜意识,善于写出丰满、变化、主体感强的人物性格。再《林教头风雪山神庙》中只有通过人物的对话及动作引出矛盾冲突,但安娜·卡列尼娜卧轨前的一系列矛盾却只用他的心理描写就能够表达清楚;林黛玉在吟诗作对中表现她的才气,而保尔用内心独白表明他的理想;张飞只具有忠勇这一性格特点,但简·爱的性格却是由勇敢、坚强、热情、善良等许多性格揉和而成的。总之,在人物描写方面中西方各有特色。 2、中国小说较之西方小说情节更加曲折,故事更为完整。情节曲折、故事完整是中国小说独特的艺术传统。魏晋南北朝的志人志怪小说就具有曲折生动的特点。唐传奇中许多名篇的布局,异常宏伟,严谨而巧妙,故事情节发展富于戏剧性。明清的长篇小说内容参差错落,波澜起伏,错落有致,结构缜密,浑然一体。如《红楼梦》,处处设伏,回回转折,写尽贾府故事。西方于情节方面出众的作品虽也不少,但终不能与中国小说相比较。 3、中国小说语言简练生动,西方小说内容丰富翔实。中国小说吸收了民间艺人语言,同时继承了古代散文的优良传统,常常寥寥数语便能勾勒出事件、人物。西方小说中包含着作者广博知识,涉及社会许多方面,因而内容丰富翔实,人们可以从中获得许多领域的知识。恩格斯就曾说过他在巴尔扎克小说中获得有关的19世纪法国国内的状况比他从任何报告中获得的都多。中西方小说有这样不同的特点,也与中西方的美学观念不同有一定关系。 4、中西方小说都曾受封建统治文化的压迫摧残。封建文化使得中国小说发展极为艰难,明清人士更以写小说为耻辱,以致许多伟大的作家生活、创作条件都无法保障,许多伟大的作品不知道作者是谁。封建文化使得西方小说在几乎整个中世纪中发展极端缓慢,许多有才华文学家被迫为教会服务,写一些宗教性质的枯燥空洞的文章。 三、中西方小说未来的发展前景 清朝末年,中西方已开始系统的认识对方,中西方小说的优点也不断地被对方借鉴。当然,由于历史原因,中方借鉴的多一些。直到今天,中西方的小说家们仍不懈的努力研究者两方小说中的艺术魅力,虽然语言的不同对相互的艺术鉴赏有一定的影响,但美是相通的。我们有理由相信,在不久的将来,中西方小说艺术最终会取长补短,融为一体,共同发展,到达新的艺术高峰

%D6%D0%CE%F7&btn=+%CB%D1%CB%F7+ 1、 (英语系毕业论文)中西戏剧发展快慢对比及其原因 摘 要 中西戏剧都有悠久的历史,无论是西方戏剧还是中国戏剧,都起源于民间,并与原始人祭祀神灵,欢庆节日的仪式密切联系在一起的。回顾希腊戏剧产生形成的历史,它发展快,成就高,在世界上的影响很 类别:毕业论文 大小:95 KB 日期:2007-07-14 2、 (英语系毕业论文)从中美管理方式的不同透析中西方文化差异与整合 摘 要随着全球化的来临,中国与外界的交流越来越频繁,特别是在商界。本论文主要探讨中美在管理上的交流。如今的商界,如同一个大家庭,参与者遍布世界各地。正是由于这个原因,各国的管理模式也趋于一体化。但是 类别:毕业论文 大小:85 KB 日期:2007-06-26 3、 (英语系毕业论文)在经济全球化下中西方文化差异与跨文化管理 摘 要伴随着世界经济的快速增长,跨国公司的飞速发展, 全球商业活动的猛烈激增,同时伴随着在文化多样化环境下的相关管理问题的出现,跨国公司的人员必须与来自不同文化背景的人打交道,这种文化差异时而会造成 类别:毕业论文 大小:96 KB 日期:2007-06-26 4、 (英语系毕业论文)中西服饰文化差异对语言的影响 摘 要中西服饰受其各自不同哲学和文化的影响体现出不同的特征:儒家思想和大陆文明使中国服饰呈现出繁冗,宽博的特征。它不注重外表的装饰,以宽松的衣服遮掩身体的曲线,在思想上追求人格的完美,以“谦谦君 类别:毕业论文 大小:90 KB 日期:2007-06-25 5、 (英语系毕业论文)快餐食品对中西方传统饮食文化的影响力 摘 要自古以来,中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区,礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响,目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同 类别:毕业论文 大小:88 KB 日期:2007-06-25 6、 (英语系毕业论文)从礼仪角度谈中西文化的差异性 摘 要自古以来,中国就是一个以礼待人的礼仪之邦。而在不同的国家、不同的地区,礼仪的形式也有所不同。本文主要从礼仪的角度谈论了礼仪与中西方文化之间的联系及相互影响,目的是为了消除不同国家之间的不同 类别:毕业论文 大小:85 KB 日期:2007-06-23 7、 (英语系毕业论文)中西饮食文化及其差异 摘 要中国悠久历史5000年,西方世界五六百年的社会历程。中国有灿烂丰富、博大精深的饮食文化;西方国家则有精巧专维、自成体系的饮食文明。民以食为天,中国有自己独特丰富的饮食文化底蕴。然而今天除了中国 类别:毕业论文 大小:100 KB 日期:2007-06-21 8、 (英语系毕业论文)中西酒店文化比较及探讨 摘 要在经济蓬勃发展的今天,旅游业风风火火地发展起来了,作为与旅游业相配套的酒店业也相应的完善起来,且更加趋于国际化。中国已经入世,这更给中国的酒店业带来一个新的发展契机,但世界上酒店发展规模空前,

从文化要素方面考虑中西文化的差异比较全面。即下文提及的知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等方面。 文化要素即文化所包含的各种基本成分。综合前述各种描述,知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等都是文化的要素,举不胜举。为了便于理解和把握,社会学家把文化要素分成以下几类。1.物质要素即文化的物质部分,包括人类创造出来的一切物质产品,其中尤以生产工具最为重要。人类创造文化,必须通过有形的制造品表现出来,如器皿、布衣、建筑物、水坝、公园等改造自然所使用的生产工具,反映了人的需要和技术发展水平,反映了人类改造自然的能力,因此它在各种物质要素中是起决定作用的要素。人们对时代的划分有时是以使用什么样的生产工具为标准的,如石器时代、青铜器时代、铁器时代、机器时代、电气时代等。人们也用使用工具的特性来表示不同的文化,如"青铜器文化"、"电气文化"等。可见工具及使用工具制造出来的物质产业是文化不可缺少的要素。2.精神要素即精神文化,包括哲学、科学、宗教、艺术以及各种思想观念,其中尤以价值观念最为重要。精神文化是文化不可或缺的部分。人们改造自然与社会,创造和享受文化的活动无不是在一定的思想观念指导和推动下进行的,所以观念形态的文化是文化要素中最有活力的部分,尤其是价值观念更是文化的精髓或灵魂,是核心要素。价值观念是人们判断是非、选择行为方向和目标的标准。人们追求什么,鄙弃什么,是由价值观念决定的。价值观是在社会共同生活中培养起来的,所以在一个群体或社会中,会形成大体一致的价值观,这就是群体或社会的价值。群体或社会的价值决定着这个群里或社会的特有生活式样。3.语言和象征符号要素人的交往只有借助语言和符号才能进行,一切知识的继承和传递也只有借助语言和符号才能实现。马林诺夫斯基认为,语言不仅是一个工具体系,而且是一套长期养成发音的习惯。人类学家们长期考察发现,世界上大约有2800种不同的语言,其中大部分语言没有共同的词汇。所以并不是任何不同的语言都可以互相翻译的。译文不可能跟原文完全响应。这说明语言是人们观察世界(甚至是改造世界)的工具。人们用语言在自己的头脑里建造了客观的世界,所以语言不同,对世界的反映也不同。例如对颜色和味道的表达,有的语言词汇很多,可以区分许多极细微的差别,而有的语言词汇很少,区分力很低。中国人常用酸、甜、苦、辣、涩来形容味道,难道世界上所有物质就只有这五种味道吗?中文里有"你"和"您"两个词来表示第二人称,英文中就只有一个"you",以致当中国人面对年长尊贵的美国客人说话时,很不好意思直呼"you"。其实英美人的语言中对年老位高的人表示尊敬,不是用一个词,而是用句型的不同来表达的。这就是中美之间文化的不同。符号是一种无声的语言,也是社会互动的过程中不可缺少的手段,甚至比语言还运用得更广泛。符号有身体的姿势、表情、动作、声音、图形、标志等。有的符号是表征的,如国徽、军旗,有的符号是指意的,如禁止通行的符号,前者含义丰富,后者意义明确。符号的不同也是文化特色的表现。4.规范体系有些人类学家把文化归结为人的行为规范和模式,足见行为规范和模式对于文化的重要性。人们行为办事要有规矩,不同的人办不同的事,要守不同的规矩。规矩就是社会规矩,是人们在社会互动过程中根据需要指定出来或衍生出来的,它是一定的价值观念的具体化,是支撑价值观念的。各种规范互相配合共同调节人们的各种社会行为,以维护社会秩序。世界各国规矩之多,差距之大,令人茫然。不懂规矩,手足无措,说明不懂规范性文化就办不成事。一个不懂宴会礼仪的人参加宴会会感到局促不安,不能顺利地交往;相反在一个普通的家庭聚会上使用正规宴会的礼仪,就令人觉得装腔作势、可笑。规范是一个群体和社会文化的外部表现,所以了解一个群体和社会的文化,首先是从认识规范开始,进而才能达到文化的核心--价值观念立夫经过多年的深思熟虑得出一个结论:中西文明之所以走向不同、发展不同、结果不同,根本是由于中西思维方式的不同使然。思维方式的不同,决定了人类观察世界、处理问题的角度和方法的不同,继而在建立思想理论、构造科学体系、创设技术系统、设定经济体制等方方面面也都不同,甚至人的脾气性格行为、价值观都有不同,最终必然导致文明的走向、发展、结果的统统不同。 举一个现今正在争论的中医为例,中医和西医正是中西两种思维方式演化出的不同学说体系。西医是科学的一种即医学,它完全是用西方的思维方式即形式逻辑构造起来并由实证方法证明的科学体系。中医确实不应该叫科学,中医处处所体现的是中国的思维方式,以及由此种方式格物致知最终才形成的医道。中医无愧于真理,而且它不但能治已病,还能治未病,它完全是由中国思维方式演化出的理论体系。因此中西医是建立在两种思维方式即两种对客观认知与评价体系之上的不同的理论体系。现实当中正是因为中西医的上述不同才使其各有所长、各有所短,所以也就有了今天中西医的结合即两者的相济为用。 西方的逻辑思维、实证方法演绎了西方灿烂辉煌的现代文明,这是世人所熟知并津津乐道的。但是,人们对中国传统的用以格物致知的思维方式却知之甚少,以至今日也无人把它界说认识清楚。这既是最大的悲哀,也是我们中国人面临的最具挑战的并亟待回答的大课题之一。 不能准确、全面、深刻地认识我们自己的中国传统的思维方式,就不可能真正知道这种思维方式的妙处、价值与局限,更不能正确评价和认识我们伟大的古代文明。我经常在问在想为什么春秋战国时期的中国,诸子百家精湛、丰富、深刻的学说,竟如雨后春笋一样地突然暴发?其实仔细想来一个极重要的条件即主观条件,就是中国传统的思维方式在面对并解决非常复杂深刻的客观问题时,已经变得非常地成熟了,可以说到了炉火纯青的地步。这其实恰是中华民族对人类贡献的一大精神硕果,正是这种思维方式影响了我们民族的方方面面,演化出了一切一切。当到了明末清初的时候,随着章回小说的精采纷呈,我们的古代文明的一切方面就全部发展到了极致。 比较中西两种思维方式,可知两者各执一端,各有短长,其不同恰是相反相成,故能相互比较、相互对照、相互启发,以至于相辅相成、相济为用,这是中国与西方各自对人类最伟大的贡献,因而是人类的两大瑰宝。立夫敢于大胆断言,这两种思维方式将共存共济、和而不同地发展下去,直到人类不再存在的那一天。 一百年来我们一直在学习西方,今天我们有了强大的物质基础,取得了初步的成就,面对复杂多变的现实,我们痛感还是少了什么,于是越来越多的人们开始对我们自己传统的思维方式与古代文明重新加以审视,由此我们有希望、有条件比西方人较早地把握这两大法宝,去迎接、去拼搏中华民族伟大复兴的世纪。 由此立夫写了《二十一世纪必将是中华民族的世纪而且是中华民族伟大复兴的世纪》和《中华民族传统的思维方式以及演化出的古代文化为什么必将发生最伟大的维新》,以期抛砖引玉,聆教大家。

中西方文化论文1000字怎么写的好看

Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day- Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy " It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example:   brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film) Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly C Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun R China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has 中西方文化差异表现在方方面面,从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在,下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异,中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义,在西方又表示一种涵义,甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。(一)red(红色)无论是在英语国家还是在中国,红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中,这些日子常用红色字体,因此,red letter day:指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”,因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组:red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语,翻译成英语,可不一定用“red”例如: 红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine (二) yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中,yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思,例如:a yellow dog 可鄙的人,卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思,如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而,英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思,如blue jokes(下流的玩笑), blue films(黄色电影)等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先,中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关:中国人比较保守,喜欢热闹,思维较古板,所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放,对于婚礼的要求也比较低,他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中:随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯,娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去,新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上,将女儿的一生托付给新郎,所有人的目光注视着这对新人,幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次,造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主,而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地,拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

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正文部分主要包括以下几个方面   阐述商务谈判重要性的背景/必要性   列出商务谈判中的主要差异   分析这些差异形成的原因   提出如何利用这些差异中的有利因素促进现代商务谈判的顺利进行。 [摘要]  随着世界经济的发展,尤其是全球经济一体化的趋势,世界各国之间的政治经济交往变得更加的频繁。尤其是自我国成功加入世界贸易组织以来…本文主要分为两个部分,第一部分主要从语意/价值观/思维方式三个方面阐述了中西方在商务谈判中的差异,分析了产生这些差异的原因。第二部分主要是提出了如何利用这些差异中的有利因素促进现代商务谈判的顺利进行。  第一部分  了解差异的必要性  国民经济的发展不仅需要自力更生,更需要走出去,引进来。这是这个时代的需要,也是改革开放/民族振兴的需要…  (主要写文化差异,并在其中参杂写商务谈判的案例)  存在的主要差异  日常交际中的差异  价值观念差异  主要体现在集体主义价值观和个人主义价值观方面,中国人集体观念和家庭观念比表强。而西方则崇尚个性解放,追求求个人自由。  思维方式差异  反映到思维方式上是抽象和具象的差别  分析差异产生的原因  第二部分 (提出建议)  通过以上分析,我们知道了在商务谈判中的主要文化差异,在商务交往中  一 了解差异,加强文化修养  二/遵守的商务礼仪   尊重习俗和禁忌   女士优先原则   尊时守信原则   举止端庄原则   其他细节。如切勿随地吐痰,乱扔瓜皮果壳等,在商务活动前不食葱/蒜等味大的东西  二 提高法律意识,学会用法律维护自己的权益

从文化要素方面考虑中西文化的差异比较全面。即下文提及的知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等方面。 文化要素即文化所包含的各种基本成分。综合前述各种描述,知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、风俗、技能、社会关系、社会组织、价值观念、行为规范和模式、语言符号、人造物品、物品的式样等都是文化的要素,举不胜举。为了便于理解和把握,社会学家把文化要素分成以下几类。1.物质要素即文化的物质部分,包括人类创造出来的一切物质产品,其中尤以生产工具最为重要。人类创造文化,必须通过有形的制造品表现出来,如器皿、布衣、建筑物、水坝、公园等改造自然所使用的生产工具,反映了人的需要和技术发展水平,反映了人类改造自然的能力,因此它在各种物质要素中是起决定作用的要素。人们对时代的划分有时是以使用什么样的生产工具为标准的,如石器时代、青铜器时代、铁器时代、机器时代、电气时代等。人们也用使用工具的特性来表示不同的文化,如"青铜器文化"、"电气文化"等。可见工具及使用工具制造出来的物质产业是文化不可缺少的要素。2.精神要素即精神文化,包括哲学、科学、宗教、艺术以及各种思想观念,其中尤以价值观念最为重要。精神文化是文化不可或缺的部分。人们改造自然与社会,创造和享受文化的活动无不是在一定的思想观念指导和推动下进行的,所以观念形态的文化是文化要素中最有活力的部分,尤其是价值观念更是文化的精髓或灵魂,是核心要素。价值观念是人们判断是非、选择行为方向和目标的标准。人们追求什么,鄙弃什么,是由价值观念决定的。价值观是在社会共同生活中培养起来的,所以在一个群体或社会中,会形成大体一致的价值观,这就是群体或社会的价值。群体或社会的价值决定着这个群里或社会的特有生活式样。3.语言和象征符号要素人的交往只有借助语言和符号才能进行,一切知识的继承和传递也只有借助语言和符号才能实现。马林诺夫斯基认为,语言不仅是一个工具体系,而且是一套长期养成发音的习惯。人类学家们长期考察发现,世界上大约有2800种不同的语言,其中大部分语言没有共同的词汇。所以并不是任何不同的语言都可以互相翻译的。译文不可能跟原文完全响应。这说明语言是人们观察世界(甚至是改造世界)的工具。人们用语言在自己的头脑里建造了客观的世界,所以语言不同,对世界的反映也不同。例如对颜色和味道的表达,有的语言词汇很多,可以区分许多极细微的差别,而有的语言词汇很少,区分力很低。中国人常用酸、甜、苦、辣、涩来形容味道,难道世界上所有物质就只有这五种味道吗?中文里有"你"和"您"两个词来表示第二人称,英文中就只有一个"you",以致当中国人面对年长尊贵的美国客人说话时,很不好意思直呼"you"。其实英美人的语言中对年老位高的人表示尊敬,不是用一个词,而是用句型的不同来表达的。这就是中美之间文化的不同。符号是一种无声的语言,也是社会互动的过程中不可缺少的手段,甚至比语言还运用得更广泛。符号有身体的姿势、表情、动作、声音、图形、标志等。有的符号是表征的,如国徽、军旗,有的符号是指意的,如禁止通行的符号,前者含义丰富,后者意义明确。符号的不同也是文化特色的表现。4.规范体系有些人类学家把文化归结为人的行为规范和模式,足见行为规范和模式对于文化的重要性。人们行为办事要有规矩,不同的人办不同的事,要守不同的规矩。规矩就是社会规矩,是人们在社会互动过程中根据需要指定出来或衍生出来的,它是一定的价值观念的具体化,是支撑价值观念的。各种规范互相配合共同调节人们的各种社会行为,以维护社会秩序。世界各国规矩之多,差距之大,令人茫然。不懂规矩,手足无措,说明不懂规范性文化就办不成事。一个不懂宴会礼仪的人参加宴会会感到局促不安,不能顺利地交往;相反在一个普通的家庭聚会上使用正规宴会的礼仪,就令人觉得装腔作势、可笑。规范是一个群体和社会文化的外部表现,所以了解一个群体和社会的文化,首先是从认识规范开始,进而才能达到文化的核心--价值观念立夫经过多年的深思熟虑得出一个结论:中西文明之所以走向不同、发展不同、结果不同,根本是由于中西思维方式的不同使然。思维方式的不同,决定了人类观察世界、处理问题的角度和方法的不同,继而在建立思想理论、构造科学体系、创设技术系统、设定经济体制等方方面面也都不同,甚至人的脾气性格行为、价值观都有不同,最终必然导致文明的走向、发展、结果的统统不同。 举一个现今正在争论的中医为例,中医和西医正是中西两种思维方式演化出的不同学说体系。西医是科学的一种即医学,它完全是用西方的思维方式即形式逻辑构造起来并由实证方法证明的科学体系。中医确实不应该叫科学,中医处处所体现的是中国的思维方式,以及由此种方式格物致知最终才形成的医道。中医无愧于真理,而且它不但能治已病,还能治未病,它完全是由中国思维方式演化出的理论体系。因此中西医是建立在两种思维方式即两种对客观认知与评价体系之上的不同的理论体系。现实当中正是因为中西医的上述不同才使其各有所长、各有所短,所以也就有了今天中西医的结合即两者的相济为用。 西方的逻辑思维、实证方法演绎了西方灿烂辉煌的现代文明,这是世人所熟知并津津乐道的。但是,人们对中国传统的用以格物致知的思维方式却知之甚少,以至今日也无人把它界说认识清楚。这既是最大的悲哀,也是我们中国人面临的最具挑战的并亟待回答的大课题之一。 不能准确、全面、深刻地认识我们自己的中国传统的思维方式,就不可能真正知道这种思维方式的妙处、价值与局限,更不能正确评价和认识我们伟大的古代文明。我经常在问在想为什么春秋战国时期的中国,诸子百家精湛、丰富、深刻的学说,竟如雨后春笋一样地突然暴发?其实仔细想来一个极重要的条件即主观条件,就是中国传统的思维方式在面对并解决非常复杂深刻的客观问题时,已经变得非常地成熟了,可以说到了炉火纯青的地步。这其实恰是中华民族对人类贡献的一大精神硕果,正是这种思维方式影响了我们民族的方方面面,演化出了一切一切。当到了明末清初的时候,随着章回小说的精采纷呈,我们的古代文明的一切方面就全部发展到了极致。 比较中西两种思维方式,可知两者各执一端,各有短长,其不同恰是相反相成,故能相互比较、相互对照、相互启发,以至于相辅相成、相济为用,这是中国与西方各自对人类最伟大的贡献,因而是人类的两大瑰宝。立夫敢于大胆断言,这两种思维方式将共存共济、和而不同地发展下去,直到人类不再存在的那一天。 一百年来我们一直在学习西方,今天我们有了强大的物质基础,取得了初步的成就,面对复杂多变的现实,我们痛感还是少了什么,于是越来越多的人们开始对我们自己传统的思维方式与古代文明重新加以审视,由此我们有希望、有条件比西方人较早地把握这两大法宝,去迎接、去拼搏中华民族伟大复兴的世纪。 由此立夫写了《二十一世纪必将是中华民族的世纪而且是中华民族伟大复兴的世纪》和《中华民族传统的思维方式以及演化出的古代文化为什么必将发生最伟大的维新》,以期抛砖引玉,聆教大家。

西方文化论文1000字怎么写好看

Chinese and Western cultural differences in the performance of every aspect of daily life from the greeting 、 term diet and cultural differences in the way of thinking in the abstract, such as differences everywhere, from the West focus on the following colors to express the difference between Chinese and Western cultural differences in areas such as a wedding First, in the West to express the color difference Different colors in different languages is not expressed in the same The representative of China in a sense, the West has a meaning that even the "color" to understand the meaning of the (A) red (red) Whether in China or in the English-speaking countries, often in red and festive celebrations or day- Calendar, red font used these days, therefore, red letter day: refers to the "Day" or "happy " It also refers to the red "liabilities" or "loss" because people are always negative in red to So there are these phrases: red figure deficit in the red loss In common with the Chinese "red" words, translated into English, may not necessarily use the "red" for example:   brown sugar brown sugar red wine red wine (B) yellow Yellow in English and Chinese in the extended meaning of the differences are In English, yellow can be said that the "timid, cowardly, despicable," meaning, for example: a yellow dog despicable, cowardly people a yellow livered coward Chinese yellow symbol of the term is sometimes vulgar, vulgar and obscene, indecent indecency means, such as yellow film, erotica, yellow CD, and so These in the name of "yellow" in English and "yellow" has nothing to However, in another English word blue is the color used to indicate the kind of meaning in Chinese, such as the blue jokes (dirty joke), blue films (yellow film) Second, the cultural differences in Western wedding First of all, in Western wedding culture and the first in the West in thinking about the differences: the Chinese people more conservative, like excitement, more old-fashioned thinking, so in the history of China for thousands of years the entire wedding customs did not change The thinking in the West is more open to the requirements of the wedding will be lower, they will be the climax of the wedding in the church: the sacred as the "wedding march" into the red carpet, Jiao Mei's father, the bride linked hands Rose walked slowly to the groom, the bride's father, daughter to the groom's hand on hand, her daughter's life will be entrusted to the groom, all eyes followed the couple, filled with well-being in their Second, the result of cultural differences wedding in the West because the West in a different China is mainly Buddhist, but the West is mainly C Therefore, the Western wedding is to be held in the church and the priest is Zhuhun R China's traditional customs of the most important part of the Bai Tiandi is, the worship heaven and earth even after the ceremony has 中西方文化差异表现在方方面面,从日常生活的打招呼用语、饮食文化等差异到思维方式等抽象方面的差异无所不在,下面着重从中西方颜色表达的差异,中西方婚礼文化差异等方面阐述。 一、中西方颜色表达的差异 不同颜色在不同语言中表达的方式并不一样。在中国代表一种意义,在西方又表示一种涵义,甚至对“颜色”的涵义理解恰恰相反。(一)red(红色)无论是在英语国家还是在中国,红色往往与庆祝活动或喜庆日子有关。日历中,这些日子常用红色字体,因此,red letter day:指的是“纪念日”或“喜庆的日子”。红色还指“负债”或“亏损”,因为人们总是用红笔登记负数。于是就有了这些词组:red figure赤字 in the red亏损汉语中常用的带“红”字的词语,翻译成英语,可不一定用“red”例如: 红糖brown sugar 红酒red wine (二) yellow黄色在英语和汉语中的引申含义差别比较大。英语中,yellow可以表示“胆小、卑怯、卑鄙”的意思,例如:a yellow dog 可鄙的人,卑鄙的人a yellow livered 胆小鬼汉语中黄色一词有时象征低级趣味、色情庸俗、下流猥亵的意思,如黄色电影、黄色书刊、黄色光碟等等。这些名称中的“黄”与英语中的“yellow”无关。然而,英语中另一个颜色词blue却常用来表示汉语中这类意思,如blue jokes(下流的玩笑), blue films(黄色电影)等。 二、中西方婚礼文化差异 首先,中西方婚礼文化差异首先和中西方人在思维方面的差异有关:中国人比较保守,喜欢热闹,思维较古板,所以在中国历史几千年的时间里整个婚礼的习俗并没有多大的变化。而西方人的思想则比较开放,对于婚礼的要求也比较低,他们婚礼的高潮则是在教堂中:随着神圣的《婚礼进行曲》步入鲜红的地毯,娇美的新娘挽着父亲手捧玫瑰慢慢向新郎走去,新娘的父亲将女儿的手放在新郎的手上,将女儿的一生托付给新郎,所有人的目光注视着这对新人,幸福洋溢在他们的脸上。其次,造成中西方婚礼文化差异的原因是中西方不同的宗教。中国是以佛教为主,而西方则是基督教为主的。所以西方的婚礼是在教堂中举行而主婚人则是神甫。中方的传统婚俗中的最重要环节就是拜天地,拜了天地以后就算是礼成了。

大家知道,无论是中国文化还是西方文化都是源远流长,都有着非常悠久的历史和传统。我们说西方文明如果从克里特文明开始算起的话,距今已经有4千5百年左右的历史了。而我们中国文明呢,我们常说中国文明5千年的历史,而实际上只有3100年左右,即便是从夏代开始,至多也只有4100年。但是西方学术界只承认我们的文明史是从商代而不是从夏代开始。因为,他们认为夏代只是一种传说,没有任何证据证明它是一个文明,尤其是没有找到文字。没有文字的文化只能算是一种原始文化或者是一种传说西方文明主要来自于希腊文明、罗马文明和基督教文明三大源流。这三大文明之间是具有极大反差的,到了近现代文化,这三大源流才算是百川归海,都汇入西方近现代文化之中。中国的文明源流主要是讲先秦,在先秦时候,大凡以黄河中下游为中华文明的起源地,就以华夏自居。 到了汉朝,应该说还是长治久安的,历史上有一个说法"雄汉盛唐",也就是说汉朝很强大。中国人变得文弱是在汉代以后,由于儒家思想的影响,中国人开始讲究仁义而不是霸道了。随着中国的不断进步,不断发展,中国自从宋朝以后,中国的政治、经济中心被南移了,南方逐渐繁盛起来了。 首先看中国,它的变革是经历了一个三步曲的过程。商代,中国和其他原始文明一样,都是一种亲代文化,都带有很浓郁的迷信色彩。我们最早的甲骨文就是一种专门用于占卜的宗教文字,为祭祀所用。西方学术界有一种观点,就是文明最早产生于寺庙之中,庙就是最早的城市中心。周朝取代商代,不仅仅是政权的更替,更为主要是宗教的变化。接下去是先秦的孔子孟子们所进行的儒家思想的变革。 到了孟子,对此又有了系统化的解释,一个人只要去向自己本性发掘,就一定能把自己本性中的美好善良的东西发掘出来,成为一个善人和圣人。因此,只要每个人都"修身、齐家"就能"治国、平天下",最后达到一个大同的理想世界。中国文化完成的一个重大变革,这个变革决定了中国文化的基本精神,是注重现世的人自我的道德修养,而不太关注外在的上帝鬼神之类的东西。也就是说,中国儒家把大同社会的理想最后落实到每个人的修身养性的工夫之上。同样,西方文化在这个时候也发生了很大的变化,通过希腊文化、到罗马文化以及基督教文化,它是一个超越的过程,而不是内敛的过程。到最后,中国文化强调一切从内心做起,西方文化强调一切由外在的上帝决定即上帝决定论。中世纪有一句名言:没有任何一只麻雀从树上掉下来,不是出于上帝的特殊意志。中国文化强调内心的修炼,"内盛外王,成己成物 ",由内向外。中西方文化发生了根本变化。yi般来说,西方人重利轻义,东方人重义轻利或义利兼顾。东方人的意识就是义字当先,古时的关羽不正是一个不折不扣的义气英豪也被当时的人们大加赞赏,我想这也是由于古时的多方思想而造成的一种文化意识5000年的文化也是造成这种重礼的不可忽视的原因相对而言,短短的西方文化更注重利益,这也正是现实主义的表现,从侵华战争及西方的一切生活都可以看出他们的自我意识,也可以称为不虚伪,实事求是的作风。当然,这也只是针对东方的绝大多数而言的。在东方比如中国人的生活中,谦让是一种美德,而西方人对此不知如何是好。西方人在多数时候为了利益可以牺牲自己的义。东方人强调整体性和综合性,而西方人则重视个体性在很多问题上中西方的差异是的,西方人看《梁山伯与祝英台》不一定看不得懂,这里头最大的问题就是中西方文化间的差异,从而造成了中国人细腻含蓄的倾情和西方人的直接表露两种不同的表达方式。中国古代的大家闺秀想必西方人一定毫无想象,更不必说中国古代的“男尊女卑”及古时的家法等一切束缚主义的思想。

仅供参考,希望对你有帮助黑暗的西欧中世纪欧洲自公元500年至公元1500年的一千年间被称为中世纪,这个时期历来被认为是欧洲最为黑暗的时期。由于蛮族的入侵和定居引起了罗马帝国的崩溃,几乎造成当时欧洲文化的完全毁灭。西欧的封建制度便是在这一背景下,由日尔曼、罗马和基督教三种因素互相融合,从罗马灭亡后的废墟上产生、发展起来的。骑士制度同样也产生于中世纪的欧洲,是欧洲在封建化的过程中逐步产生、确立起来的封建附庸制度。中世纪的欧洲国家是一种松懈的领土集合体。在一个国家里,以皇帝、国王、公爵等为最高领主,其他大贵族则以向其宣誓效忠来换取封地——“采邑”,从而成为最高领主的附庸。这些附庸各自又可以拥有从属于自己的附庸,直到拥有少量土地或无地的骑士们,如此便构成了西欧完整的封建等级体系。西欧中世纪一般被认为是一个文化衰落的时期,甚至“黑暗”的时期,并且把造成这种“黑暗”和“文化倒退”的原因完全归咎于基督教会事实上,在西欧中世纪早期(公元5—11世纪),教会的活动在特定的历史条件下为西欧文化的发展做出了重大贡献基督教是古典文化的主要继承者,它在客观上促进了中世纪早期西欧文化的复兴,奠定了中世纪西欧教育的基础,促进了西欧各民族文化的交流 近代欧洲成为世界进步的火车头,从近代欧洲诞生的近代文明以其巨大的影响左右了世界近代历史的走向。人权、民主、法制、共和、科学等观念,今天已为世人广泛接受;地理大发现使得世界的联系愈加紧密,东西方世界从此愈加成为一个不可分割的整体。而近代欧洲文明是从中世纪欧洲的土壤中成长起来的。欧洲中世纪是一个独特的历史时期,从罗马帝国的废墟中成长起来的日尔曼人诸王国逐渐把日尔曼与罗马因素结合起来,形成了独特的包含于西欧封建制度之下的一系列制度。 一、西欧封建制度的形成 公元476年最后一位罗马皇帝被日尔曼人废除,西罗马帝国终于在蛮族的入侵下灭亡了,在原西罗马帝国的土地上相继建立起许多日尔曼人国家,西欧的封建制度正是在这一背景之下发展起来。 法兰克人进入高卢地区后,就没收了罗马皇室和部分奴隶主的土地,用以分给法兰克人的马尔克公社。也有很多被墨洛温王朝的国王和他的亲兵们所占有,他们成为了新兴的封建地主阶级。随着法兰克人不断征服新的地区,国王们便把新征服的土地及其上的人民赠送给他的部下、主教和修道院长,即所谓的“赠地”。这样无限制赠地的结果便是地方大贵族的实力不断增加,最终大大削弱了王权,使墨洛温王朝的继任国王们逐渐成为一个只具有象征意义的“共主”。到加洛林家族的查理"马特担任宫相时期,为了法兰克国家的长治久安,也为了巩固他自己的实力,他开始实行采邑制。查理"马特将没收的叛乱贵族和教会的土地作为采邑,分封给贵族和教会。采邑的领受者必须为赐予者服骑兵役,并向其宣誓效忠;采邑的赐予者有义务保护领受者,使其不受他人的伤害。采邑分封,只限终身,不得世袭。 从某种意义上来说西欧封建制度是在这一时期由法兰克人发展起来的,“采邑”制更是起到了根本的决定意义。 “采邑”制到查理曼时期有了很大发展。在这一时期里,除国王旧有的教俗封臣外,过去属于国家官吏的伯爵、马克伯爵和公爵等也都变成国王的封臣,从国王处领受采邑。并且此时的采邑逐渐的变为世袭的了。国王的封臣们也可以吸收自己的封臣,并把部分土地作为采邑分赐给他们,从而又成为他们的封君。9世纪后,“封土”一词逐渐代替“采邑”;以后则全用封土称呼。国王是最高封建领主,其下有公爵、伯爵、主教等大封建主,再下是中小封建主,至此形成西欧完整的封建等级制度。 中世纪的国家是一个松弛的封土集合体,并没有明确的国界概念。“它的财产权和主权到处相互转化”[1] 欧洲的封建制度是一种政治、经济合一的制度。封建领主在其封土内首先明确拥有的是土地的所有权,进而在王权衰落后,又逐步取得了王权在地方的权力并将其转化为同封土一并世袭的私人权力,其中包括行政、司法、税收、铸币等权力。追究欧洲封建制度的产生根源,则包括了三个主要的因素:罗马文明、日尔曼传统以及基督教的影响。 黑暗的西欧中世纪 公元500~1500年,就是西欧的中世纪时期。这个时期,可以说基本奠定后世的国家形势。这个时期,整个西欧的主要政治制度就是封建制。但是,此封建非彼封建。以我来看,西欧的封建制还是更接近于我国夏商周时期的分封制。这种封建制也是国家元首赏赐土地给他想要封赏的人,但是,不同之处在于,在大宗之下的小宗,可以不听从大宗之上的更大者的号令,简单来说,可以用一句当时的俗语说明:“我的附庸的附庸,不是我的附庸。”这就清楚地说明了上下的权力关系。按照我们的看法,这无疑是不利于统治的。从后来的历史来看,这是不错的。 这个时代,西欧各个国家迅速发展,这是由于两项科技的发明,一项是马轭,它可以使牲口在被牢牢套住之余不至于被压住气管而窒息。另一项则是重犁,它可以迅速的破开土壤,翻开错综复杂的地下根系。这段时间内,欧洲的树林急剧减少就有它们的功劳。随着科技的发展,人民的生产力逐渐提高,国家开始进入兴盛。国家的强大使得战争频发。公元六世纪开始,来自斯堪的纳维亚的维京人开始入侵欧洲国家。他们有着先进的航海技术,是他们发现了格陵兰,也有传闻说他们在早于哥伦布的几个世纪前就已经先达到了美洲。反正,他们倚仗先进的航海技术,对波罗的海及北海附近的国家进行侵略式的抢掠。当然,这也促成了最能代表西欧当时特色的城堡。当时的城堡,规模甚宏,在强盗入侵时,附近的农民便躲入城堡,寻求保护。领主也因为战略原因乐于对居民提供保护,便形成了西欧的一种独特城市格局:层层的建筑或农田围绕着城堡而建。其实,认为城堡是一种防卫工具的看法是十分片面的,事实上,城堡最初建立的目的是作为士兵及骑士的军事基地,是用来控制附近地区的。在国王权力日渐衰退的中世纪,城堡成为了维护城镇稳定的重要工具。 说到欧洲中世纪的代表,城堡绝对不会比骑士更具特色。骑士的兴起源于法兰克帝国的大军阀铁锤查理。他在与阿拉伯人的都尔一役中大败阿拉伯人,便是得益于他的精锐骑兵部队。随后,骑士风靡全欧洲,各个地区的人们都以成为骑士为荣。因为骑士需要供养马匹,自己配备武器,盔甲,非富贵人家没有资格成为骑士。骑士经常依附于他心仪的领主,领主为其提供土地和农民,骑士在需要时期为领主作战。因为供养骑士的费用远比普通的士兵要高,所以有的领主是比较贫穷的。骑士被视为一种身份,后来逐渐发展成骑士精神。不过在后来,骑士们因为利益的缘故,不再重视这种规则。有一个绝对强力的历史事实印证了这个现象:十字军东征。十字军的主力就是各种利欲熏心的骑士,因为幻想掠得无比的财富,组成各种军事团来参与东征。他们参与了除了儿童十字军外的每一次侵略战争。骑士不仅仅是身份的象征,同时也成为了战争的象征。 欧洲中世纪有一个大民族是不可忽视的,这就是日耳曼民族了。但,此日尔曼并非希特勒口中的日耳曼,它是莱茵河以东,维斯瓦河以西,多瑙河以北的一片大地区的民族总称。日耳曼人的杰出代表是法兰克人,当时的法兰克王国可谓是强大至极。后来因为日耳曼民族的分遗产制度而分裂成3部分,分别是法国、意大利、普鲁士(即德国)的前身。日耳曼语系影响了整个欧洲的语言,被匈奴人赶入欧洲的日耳曼人的入侵更直接造成了西罗马帝国的灭亡。可谓是影响力大。 在欧洲的中世纪,有一件事不可不提,就是蒙古人的入侵。当时的蒙古铁骑,甚至达到了多瑙河东岸,让许多欧洲人闻风色变。当时的蒙古人所到之处,攻破城镇大部分遭到屠城厄运,幸亏为阿拉伯人所败,不然怕会有一场大灾难在欧洲发生。 总之,在公元500~1500年的西欧,即中世纪的西欧,战争的阴云总是笼罩在人们头上,可以称之为黑暗的西欧中世纪。

Western novels in comparison First, Western novels in the history of the development of Western novels are based on myths and legends of its In ancient times, science developed, out of fear of nature, the working people out of the imagination is the key to many of the world "God", describing the personification of God is a myth; who will describe the deified, that is China opened the world's Pan story, the story of San Juan Five Emperors, the West Greek mythology, Roman mythology, Norse mythology, and so on are all typical East and West, the original novel, is closely linked with the history, as historical records complement the China Pre-Qin prose in the fable, the Han dynasty in the history books, biographies, the Wei and Jin Zhi, Zhi-person novel; the West of ancient Babylon, "the United States and Ji Jia disabilities epic", in ancient Greece, "Homer's epic," "Aesop's Fables "And so on, fall into this category, fiction, novels such novels have been about the characteristics of fiction, it is still not the literary creation, directly from the private collection record, so this type of fiction plot is relatively simple, writing rough Ban Gu said, "On the Street Lane words, hearsay are made of" is a novel kind of accurate assessment of the China's Tang Dynasty, the novel is only from history and literature become a Tang Dynasty culture has developed, the author's ideas are more open, the legend came into being at this time, Li Zhaowei "Liu Yi Chuan", Po Chu's "Everlasting Regret," Wolf's "Everlasting Regret Chuan" And so on, are made in accordance with the creation of the For the fictional story of the Tang Dynasty more emphasis on imagination and literary talent, not just the history of the nature of things, but as the history of Zhi Zhi who is also the novel did not The Legend of the Song Dynasty to the novel on a gradual decline, which followed the rise of this so that after processing will become a scholar so many novel and Romance novels such as "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", "Outlaws of the Marsh", "Journey to the W" The author of such novels is the use of private creative and re-created to describe the circumstances of the touching scenes of brilliant and vivid active in shaping the character known, there are obvious story-telling style of Here by the redevelopment, it will become an independent literary creation rather than things to come together with the civil process, the representative of this type is the "Golden Lotus", it was an open and ordinary life on the road, the reality is that literature has come a long way The development of the latter's "A Dream of Red Mansions" in ancient China Geng Shiba realism to the novels of the "54" after the novelist began to learn from China's western fiction writing practices, and gradually out a new Western novels, is the "Renaissance" after the rapid development of The development of the Middle Ages novel near-stagnation in the West, 14, the end of the century "Renaissance" to overthrow the literature of the Church of control, 15, appeared in the western end of the century to promote freedom of thought and the liberation of personality in order to describe the reality of life and portray characters from all walks of life for the content of the Humanist novels, is to tie in with this type of novel anti-feudal Europe at the time of arising at the same time it also set the novel in the West to human describing the tone of the main Jiaqiu Italy's "Decameron", Spain's Cervantes "Don Quixote" is the kind of representative works of The resulting novel is a classical, elegant favor of its national language to standardize the writing of this novel in 17th century France's most well- As a note on behalf of Corneille's "Cid" neoclassical story of the rise of Western novels have been a language substantially The beginning of the 18th century to promote popular science knowledge, enlightenment of the public consciousness for the purpose of the Enlightenment novels, of which there are relatively well-known German Goethe's "Faust", the United Kingdom Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe" and the Swift "Gulliver's Travels" and so on, this type of novel to the emergence of the bourgeois revolution at the time to mold public In the 19th century, romantic fiction, realistic novels and critical realism novel turn to occupy the leading position in the field of Romantic novels, such as France Victor Hugo's "Notre Dame de Paris", Goethe's "juvenile Witt of trouble" and so on, imaginative, unusual ideas, language and imaginative, strong Efforts to reflect the reality of the novel is the essence of life, and depict typical life of a typical phenomenon in the United Kingdom Dickens, France and Germany are of such novels as a representative of the Critical realism novels exposed the efforts of the decadent feudal system and capitalist society, the dark, in-depth criticism of the reality of evil, France Balzac and Maupassant, the United Kingdom of Charlotte, Bronte, Russia's Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, the United States of a large number of writers such as Mark Twain's works belong to this Value today, the three novels in the West is still the most important of the three types of literary East-West novel on the history of the development of more or less the Second, the characteristics of the novel in the West In addition to the basic characteristics of the novel, the story of the West also have their own characteristics are as follows: 1, the traditional Chinese novel attention to the characters, language and the details of the description, in contradiction to the conflict to display the images, but the character of a single, small changes in the absence of the main Western novels are more people pay attention to the psychological description, stressed that mining figure in the subconscious mind, good at writing full, the changes in the strong sense of the main Again, "coach Lin Feng Snow Mountain Temple" in the figure is only through dialogue and action leads to contradictions and conflicts, but Anna Karenina Wogui before a series of conflicts only with his description of the psychological will be able to express their clear; for poetry in Lin In the performance of her literary talent, and Paul with his inner monologue of the ideal; Zhang Zhong-Yong has only the character, but Jane Eyre's character is the brave, strong, warm, kind-hearted, and so many of the character and rubbing and Cheng' In short, people in the area described in the West has its own unique 2, China compared with Western fiction novel plot twists and turns more and more complete Plot twists and turns, the story is complete fiction China's unique traditional The Wei and Jin Zhi Zhi people on the novel twists and turns with vivid Tang legend in the layout of many of the famous, magnificent anomaly, rigorous and clever, dramatic plot The contents of the Ming and Qing Dynasties novels scattered irregular, undulating waves, Cuoluoyouzhi, careful structure, an integral "A Dream of Red Mansions", everywhere She Fu, Hui turning point, the story of Jia's best Western plot in respect of the outstanding works, although there are many, but it can not be compared with the Chinese 3, concise and lively Chinese language novel, rich in content and rich Western Chinese folk artists absorbed the novel language, at the same time inherited the fine traditions of ancient prose, often a few words will be able to outline the incident or the Western novels in the author includes a broad range of knowledge, involve the community in many ways, so rich in content and rich people can gain knowledge in many Engels said he was in Balzac's novel about 19th century France's domestic situation than he received any reports are Western novels have different characteristics, and also in the West different aesthetic concepts to a certain extent 4, Western novels have been the rule of the feudal culture of oppression Chinese feudal culture makes the development of the novel is extremely difficult, Ming and Qing Dynasties more people to write stories for shame, so many great writers living, creating the conditions are not covered, many of the great works of authors who do not Western novels in the feudal culture makes almost the whole of the Middle Ages in the development of extremely slow, and many talented writers were forced to church services, wrote some of the religious nature of the article dry Third, Western novels in the future prospects for the development of End of the Qing Dynasty, China and the West have begun to understand the other side of the system, the advantages of the novel in the West have been constantly learn from each Of course, due to historical reasons, the Chinese side of the draw a little To this day, the novelist in the West efforts are still two researchers in the novel's artistic charm, although the different languages of each other's appreciation of the arts to a certain extent, but the United States are We have every reason to believe that in the near future, the novel art in the West will ultimately learn from each other and integrate, develop and reach new artistic References: "Foreign Literature" Shanghai Translation Publishing House Zhou Xu Liang "Contemporary Literature election," Zhang Zhong, such as Beijing University Publishing House "Chinese literature history of the development of" Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House Liu Jie "Literary History of Europe" People's Literature Publishing House Yangzhou Han Wu Da-yuan Zhao Rui radish "Three high school language textbook used by the five dates of the" People's Education Press仅供参考,请自借鉴。希望对您有帮助。

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