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天文研究论文英语

发布时间:2024-07-05 22:50:30

天文研究论文英语

好吧...(有点找抽地说两句...)楼上两篇的翻译都...仅仅达意而已...楼主 要是想翻译,最好是找熟悉的人,或者付钱请专业人士。像现在这样问来的结果不会比用在线翻译软件得到的结果好多少。

The Greek Heavenly Thoughts The Greek was the first recognize the distinction between the natural and the supernatural. In other words , they found the nature, since then, the cosmology(宇宙学) could never be maintain a system of myth. Gradually, the Greek believed themselves to live in a cosmos, and considered the cosmos to be an entirely natural place. Besides they saw an order in the cosmos. The order, to them, not only means an arrange, but also a good order, and also a beautiful, elegant order. With an optimism(乐观主义), they believed the order, and the cosmos were comprehensible(可知的), and furthermore, could be described in words and numbers. When the Greek formed these crucial ideas, some earliest philosophers and scientists were important and influential. The Milesians(米利都学派得的哲学家), including Thales(泰勒斯), Anaximander(阿纳克西曼德), described the cosmos in entirely natural terms for the first time. Heraclitus(赫拉克立特) insisted that the cosmos worked according to a logos(理性), which mean “word”, “account”, “measure”, and “proportion”, and if we grasp this logos, the cosmos could be understood and described well. After the Greek accepted the idea that the cosmos was a natural place and comprehensible, some pre-Socratics(前苏格拉底时代德哲学家) overcame some significant conceptual(观念上的) hurdles to achieve a more sophisticated cosmology. There was the move from a hemispherical(半球形) universe to a spherical(球形) one, and a earth supported by water to supported by air, and then to one which need no support. In the earlier Greek cosmologies, objects were thought to drop in parallel straight lines from the top of the cosmos to the bottom, this led to the problem why the earth doesn’t fall to the bottom of the cosmos, so in this sort of the cosmos, something is required to support the earth. Then Aristotle placed the earth at the center of the cosmos, there was no the problem of the earth dropping. He believed that objects moved to the center of the cosmos, that is the earth itself. The idea that the earth was central and stable dominated Greek astronomy and cosmology. In Greek minds, it can explain many phenomena. Firstly, the experience told Greek, if one was in rapid motion, he certainly knew about it, so they thought, if the earth has a daily rotation from west to east, there should be constant wind from east to west; if the earth is in motion around the sun, all objects will sweep off the face of the earth. Secondly, because they had no knowledge of gravity, they believe if the earth in rapid motion, it will disintegrate(解体). Thirdly, if the earth takes up different positions relative to the stars(恒星), there should be a stellar parallax(恒星视差量), one can detect slight changes in the apparent positions of the stars from the earth. When the Greek physics, astronomy, philosophy and common sense all seemed to indicate an immobile earth, there was an important consequence, all of the motions of the heavens were real motions to the earth, not apparent ones due to the motion of the earth. At the outset, Greek observational astronomy was rather divorced(背离) from philosophical speculation about the nature of the cosmos. Some observed the heavens and took careful notes of what they saw, some produced cosmological models based on general philosophical considerations. But no one gave a cosmological model that were anywhere near explaining, in a precise manner, the phenomena that had been record. The Pythagoreans(毕达哥拉斯学派的哲学家) made the first attempt. They believed in the center of the cosmos was a fire, not the sun, the fire was shield from the earth by a body known as the counter earth. The model was vague and speculative, and the earth moves around the fire, and between the fire and earth, there was the counter earth. Plato(柏拉图) produced a slightly better model, had central earth, with the sun, the moon, the five planets and the stars orbiting around it. Then it was a basic assumption of Greek astronomy and cosmology, if some motions seems not circular or regular, almost all Greek philosophers and scientists would consider these as some combination of several circular and regular motions. Neither of two models could account for two important phenomena relating to the point at which the sun sets. The sun does not always set due west(正西方). Where the sun sets during a year changes from a maximum of º north of west to a maximum of °north of west. Solstices(至日,包括冬至、夏至) occur at the maximum points, while equinoxes(分日,包括春分、秋分) occur at the due west. Later Plato gave the first model that could give a reasonable account for these phenomena. The model was one of the most important Greek cosmological models. Plato made the first serious attempt to unite astronomical phenomena and cosmological traditions. He insisted that the sun, the moon, have a combination of two regular circular motions, that’s to say, the sun and the moon have a second motion in addition the daily one, offset(偏移) at an angle to it. As to the five planets, which are wandering in the heaven apparently, Plato gave a similar but more complex explanation. The model could give a reasonable explanation approximately, but couldn’t explain the planets exceptive motions. They will progress against the background of the fixed stars over a year or two, or even longer, then they will halt suddenly, and go in the other direction for a while, stop again, after that, progress in the normal direction. Facing a series strange exceptions and motions of the planets, Eudoxus(人名,难以翻译,重要的哲学家、科学家) thought regressively(回归,追本溯源). He was a pupil of Pythagorean, and had a close relationship with Plato. About planets, Plato’s model had two regular circular movements for each planet, Eudoxus gave four circular movements for each planet. In this model, the first sphere (环), generate a daily motion; the second generate the motion along the ecliptic(黄道), the other two produce a pattern like the figure 8 laid on its sides(行星出现在黄道正负8度范围内). Besides, Eudoxus had a record of planets’ motion, and made a good use of mathematics, so compared with Plato’s model, his is more sophisticated. Eudoxus’ model was excellent model for a long time, but there were some inherent difficulties. Because the distance between the earth and each one of five planets that we can see with naked eyes, always changes, it is not difficult to find that all planets’ size are varying apparently. Eudoxus can’t cope with the phenomenon, in his model, the distances between the earth and the planets are constant, that means the size of planets can’t vary. Account for these problems, Ptolemy(托勒密) produced a whole new system which was to last for nearly 1500 years. The system was based on combination of regular circular motions too. He gave up concentric(同心圆) sphere model in favor of a system based on a device, the epicycle(本轮,天文模型的一种). The epicycle is a combination of two regular circular motions, but not around the same center. The center of smaller circle moves around the larger circle. The two circles can produced many complex patterns, because these patterns, Ptolemy was able to explain most problems that beset the concentric sphere model, including the variation of apparent size, the brightness, the velocity(速度) of the planets. Besides the epicycle, Ptolemy made another subtle change, the earth is offset from the center of the sun’s orbit. So the model can account for that seasons have slightly different lengths. Now before the telescope was invented and new phenomena that can’t be found with naked eyes were detected, the model is the best in the ancient times. After talking about some important Greek cosmological models, we have to mention an exceptive astronomer, Aristarchus(阿里斯塔克斯). He is the first one who have a revolutionary thinking that the earth is orbiting around the sun. But sadly, we don’t know how and why he can be aware this without any idea about gravity and the phenomena which only can be detected with telescope, only we know he is a follower of Aristotle.

太阳和太阳系的年龄地壳中最古老岩石的年龄经放射衰变方法鉴定为略小于40亿岁。用同样方法测定的月球岩石样品年龄大致从41亿岁直到最古老月岩样品的45亿岁。有些陨星样品也超过了40亿岁。综合所有证据得出太阳系大约是46亿岁。由于银河系已经150亿岁左右,所以太阳及其行星的年龄只及银河系的三分之一。 虽然没有测量太阳年龄的直接方法,但它作为赫罗图主序星上一颗橙黄色恒星的总体外貌,却正好是对一颗具有太阳质量、年龄约46亿岁、度过了它的一半主序生涯的恒星所应该期望的(英语翻译)The age of the sun and solar systemThe oldest rocks in the crust by radioactive decay of age were identified as slightly less than 40 billion years old. Using the same method the age of the moon rock samples from roughly billion years old the oldest dated rock samples up to 45 billion years old. Some meteorite samples has more than 40 billion years old. For all the evidence obtained about the solar system billion years old. As the Milky Way has about 15 billion years old, so the sun and the planets and the Milky Way is only one-third of the age. Although there is no direct way to measure the age of the sun, but as the HR diagram main sequence stars on an orange star general appearance, but with the sun just is a quality, aged about 46 billion years old, spent half of it main sequence stars in the career should be expected

现在请人写论文就只值100个百度财富值了么?

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英语口语研究论文

听力和口语写一方面就可以了,我写的口语研究的毕业论文,最开始也不懂,还是学长给的莫文网,有高手就是快啊初中英语口语教学的行动研究对外汉语口语教学探析——以戏剧化教学法为例情境教学与小学口语交际研究——以鄂尔多斯小学为例原版英文电影在大学英语口语教学中的应用研究论对外汉语口语教材编写的实用性原则——以《中级汉语口语提高篇》为例情景学习在初中英语口语教学中的实验研究人教版高中语文教材“口语交际”部分编写思路及教学对策研究高中英语口语教学问题分析及解决策略——以滁州市某中学为例任务型教学法在高中英语口语教学中的应用调查研究高考英语口语考试对高中英语教学的反拨作用研究人教版小学《语文》口语交际教材内容研究中学口语交际教学与设计策略任务型教学法在初中英语口语教学中的应用研究英语专业学生口语自主学习能力影响因素的研究留学生初级口语课教学设计探究高中生英语学习策略对口语焦虑的影响与对策研究——以湖北省恩施市4所高中为例高中语文口语交际教学研究浅谈对外汉语初级口语教学的启发与建议——结合初级口语课程的观摩与实践对外汉语口语教材交际性练习考察研究——以《汉语口语》和《汉语口语速成》为例信息技术环境下的初中英语口语任务型教学模式研究合作学习对英语口语教学的研究影视资源辅助高中英语口语教学的应用研究对外汉语口语教材和国内英语口语教材对比研究留学生汉语能愿动词偏误研究——以《汉语桥》和《世界大不同》口语语料库为中心多元智能理论在大学英语口语教学中应用的实证研究农村小学语文口语交际教学现状调查研究——以石门县N所小学为例对外汉语初级阶段口语教材练习设置的研究——以《发展汉语—初级口语》为例越南汉语口语教学顺序性问题研究农村小学高年级学生英语口语能力存在的问题及培养的研究语境在大学英语口语教学中的应用研究

高校英语口语测评体系构建分析论文

一、引言

大学英语课程改革最近在全国高校内如火如荼地开展起来,改革方向由原来强调读写能力的传统课堂转向突出实践应用的听说课堂,尤其是加大口语教学在大学英语课程中的比重。英语口语课程对于非英语专业的大学本科生来说不再依附于读写课程,而作为单独一门课程设置。那么,如何正确地评价口语流利度以及如何设计口语考核方案,成为大学英语教学中不能忽视的一个重要课题。英语测试虽然经过了几百年的演变发展,然而口语测试起步较晚,并且在信度和效度上难以保障。同时,适用于本科非英语专业学生的大规模口试任务在设计上也有很大的难度。就以厦门理工学院大一学生的英语口语强化课程为例,学生在学习口语过程中兴趣高涨,学习成果颇丰,然而大部分学生对于期末考核方案颇有微词。因为,目前的期末口语考试是由科任教师对学生口语产出水平分别进行测试,包括外籍教师和中国老师,他们的评判标准是什么?评判标准是否一致?评判结果是否可信有效,这些我们都无从考证。本研究的最终目的就是提高本校非英语专业学生英语期末口语测试的有效性和学生对口语考试的信任度。科学有效的测试方法和公平的测试结果对于激发学生的英语学习热情和提高口语水平都起着积极的作用。本研究依据前人提出的口语测试的模型及相关的研究成果,提出适合本校的口语测评体系。

二、影响口试信度和效度的主要因素

信度和效度是大规模进行标准化考试的两个重要指标,当然也是口试有效性的重要标准。但是,目前国内英语口试主要都是通过面试等直接口试形式进行,而且其结果仅凭考官的个人判断,所以口语考试结果的信度较差。而口语测试的评分标准还是以学生的口语流利度和语音面貌作为主要的评判依据。其实,交际效果和交际效率在口试评判过程中也同样重要。与客观选择题相比,口试的互动性和灵活性无法保证评分员在评判过程中不出现个体差异。现有的口试研究非常注重测试员的信度问题,注意保障测试员之间评分标准的一致性。

口试的另一个核心问题就是其效度,口语考试的设计应该要围绕它来开展。影响口试效度的主要因素有口试任务类型,测试方法和评分标准。根据Koloughlin的研究表明,对着录音机说话,考生会觉得更加正式。但也有许多考生会明显表现得更焦虑,因为他们意识到自己所说的话会被录下来,而录音口试存在一个明显的缺点就是考生在交流过程中没有表情和手势。我们在设计口试任务是要以能够最大程度上展现学生的言语,体现真实的交际情景,充分反映学生的口头交际能力为目标。然后考官根据统一的评分标准,如剑桥商务英语BEC的评分标准就是很好的范本,对已得的言语范本进行打分。

目前国内主要的口语测试形式有面试(直接口试)和录音口试(半直接口试)。两种形式都有各自的优缺点。面试的优点在于考官直接与受试者面对面交流,能够更直观更直接地对受试口语水平进行判断。但是,面试的结果跟考官的个体关系很大。如考官的主观评判标准,考官的受教育程度,考官自身的语言水平,考官当天的心情,这些都会成为影响考试结果的因素,并且同一个考官不可能完成短时间内对大量受试者的测试。也就是说面试口试虽然有较高的效度,但是缺乏信度,并且不利于大规模考试的开展。而录音口试比较适合大规模考试。例如,目前国内的英语专业四级和专业八级的考试就是采取了这种测试形式。但是录音口试不能体现语言的交际性,更像一个人对着自己自言自语,缺乏对日常交际的情境模拟。而语言的交际过程应该是在一定的社会环境中,说话人将自己的观念,态度和情感用语言传递给别人。所以,为了达到这种交际的有效性和真实性,考官应该要参与到交际过程中,与受试者有一定的互动。除了观察考生的言语交际之外,还应把考生的身体语言也纳入评分范围。

三、测评体系的设计和实施

(一)口语测试设计

大学本科非英语专业毕业生需要哪些英语能力?需要达到哪些标准?针对这些问题,笔者采访了厦门几家中外合资企业的人事发现,他们认为学生在学校学到的知识基本上很少能够运用到现实工作当中,当有国外客户来访或出国交流,需要用英语做日常交流时,比如预订酒店和机票、介绍公司的基本情况时,他们都很难开口。他们对于学生的口语水平有一下几点要求:1.语言表达准确流畅;2.清晰地表达自己的建议;3.能够进行简单的日常生活对话。这些要求将加入到我校口语测试的评分标准,确保我校本科毕业生的英语口语水平更加符合社会发展的需要。

根据厦门理工学院非英语专业英语口语考试的现状,本校非英语专业学生英语口试目前受到以下几点制约:1.缺少统一的口语试题库,均由本班英语科任老师各自出卷;2.每位任课老师通过面试的直接型口语测试的方法来完成,这样使测试的信度受主观因素影响较大;3.每位老师平均授课班级人数为150人左右,而口语考试要求在一周内完成,考试时间集中,工作量较大。

据此,本研究对厦门理工学院的学生(大一上学期期末)口语测试的设计如下:

①口试形式:采取面试型直接口试的方式,每组设测试员一名,学生两人一组,由测试员引导学生根据流程完成口试,全程录像。考试结束后由三名英语老师根据录像中播放的学生表现情况打分。原则上配备两名中教和一名外教,要求三位老师均不是考生的授课老师。三名老师的评分结果取平均分作为考生最终的口语考试成绩。

②口试内容:分为两部分,一是考生根据图片信息完成即席演讲,限时2分钟,另一部分是角色扮演,这部分考察内容主要来源于实际生活场景,如预订酒店、邀请和拒绝等,限时3分钟,由两位考生共同完成。除此之外,本研究还增加了电影配音环节,由任课老师提前指定电影片段并发给学生,保证学生在考试前充分的准备。

比起传统的朗读任务,电影配音更贴近生活,也更能激起学生的学习兴趣,并且有一个很好的'语音范本供学生模仿学习,也同样能达到测试学生语音的目的。而学校教室配备的电脑和多媒体投影仪基本能够保证这项测试的顺利进行,所占分值为20%.而第二个考试环节主要考察学生批判思维的能力、语言组织能力和表达准确性。在这个环节学生英语口语的个人能力将会得到充分的展现,对学生综合水平要求较高,所以,这部分在最后总评成绩中所占比例为30%.最后一个环节重点考察学生的口语交际能力,由同一组内两名学生根据老师提供的日常生活场景进行对话。由于交际能力是我们口语考试考察的重点,所以这个环节是整个口语测试的重点,所占的分值也是最高,达到50%.教师所选的日常生活场景应该属于本学期教学范围内的,保证学生有话可说。

(二)评分标准和流程

目前国内外英语口语测试所采用的评分方法主要有整体评分(holistic scoring)和分项评分(analytic scoring)两种。分项评分就是将考生的口语表达分成语音、语调、词汇等迹象分别评分,各项总分相加就是考生最后的得分。厦门理工学院非英语专业的英语口语测试大多是采用分项评分的方法。它的特点在于测试员有统一的评分标准,易于操作,拥有较高的信度,而缺点在于把考生口语的整体水平主观地分割开来,这样的评分并不能反映出被试者真实的口语水平,而且这样的评分过程耗时过长。整体评分又称印象评分,也是口试中常见的评分方法,测试员根据统一的评分级量表对被试口语进行整体评价。国外着名的雅思口语考试就是采用整体评分的模式。所以,本校非英语专业大一学生口语考试也采用整体评分模式。本研究参考雅思口语考试的评分标准,根据学生的整体口语水平将成绩分为9个等级。

本实验中口试过程由任课老师维持考场秩序,保证考试有序进行,并对考试过程录像,再由三位非本班的英语专业老师针对录像中学生的表现进行整体评分,取其平均分作为考生的口语成绩。这样做既能够在短期内完成大范围的考试,又不至于使评分过程显得过分仓促,缺乏信度。而参加测试和评分的老师要参加统一的评分标准知悉会,确保评分标准统一和评分的公平公正。

四、结论

本实验在2015级上学期(一年级)部分学生(涉及机械,土木和文化传播三个专业)的口语考试中使用了以上的口语测试体系。经过改革之后的口语考试,由于增加了录像和多位老师共同综合评判给分,信度大大增加,也进一步提高学生学习口语的积极性。但是,由于批改过程需要3位英语老师同时批改,要耗费较大的人工,并且如果全校非英语专业大一学生的英语期末口语考试都使用这个考试方案,需要同时使用多台摄影设备。所以,虽然本口语测试模式同时兼具信度和效度,也适合我校学生的英语口语水平,但是具体如何在全校推广,值得在此基础上进一步地研究。

参考文献:

[1]高丙梁。大学英语口语测试研究热点评述[J].外语教学理论与实践,2008,(1):92-96.

[2]刘芹,胡银萍。理工科大学生英语口语教学需求调查研究[J].西安外国语大学学报,2010,(3):86-89.

[3]罗凯洲,韩宝成。Ordinate与SpeechRater口语自动评分系统评述与启示[J].外语电化教学,2014,(7):27-32.

[4]王杰。浅析大学英语口语测试合理模式的构建[J].齐鲁师范学院学报,2013,(2):134-136.

建议去知网搜索英语口语能力,然后可以搜索到很多的相关论文,以此作为参考,再结合自己的日常教学体验,在提高初中生英语口语表达能力方面所做的实践性研究,以及自己所采取的教学策略,就可以很好地完成这篇论文了。

英语委婉语研究论文

写过了,可以给你用。按研究问题的大小不同可以把论文范文分、为宏观论文范文和微观论文范文。凡属国家全局性、带有普遍性并对局部工作有一定指导意义的论文范文,称为宏观论文范文。它研究的面比较宽广,具有较大范围的影响。反之,研究局部性、具体问题的论文范文,是微观论文范文。它对具体工作有指导意义,影响的面窄一些。另外还有一种综合型的分类方法,即把论文范文分为专题型、论辩型、综述型和综合型四大类:1.专题型论文范文。这是分析前人研究成果的基础上,以直接论述的形式发表见解,从正面提出某学科中某一学术问题的一种论文范文。专题应用型论文范文是一种运用所学的理论基础和专业技能知识,独立地探讨或解决本学科某一问题的论文范文,其基本标准应该是:通过论文范文,可以大致反映作者能否运用所学得的基础知识来分析和解决本学科内某一基本问题的学术水平和能力。当然,它的选题一般也不宜过大,内容不太复杂,要求有一定的创见性,能够较好地分析和解决学科领域中不太复杂的问题。

英语中的委婉语(Euphemism)一词来自希腊语的前缀eu=well和词根pheme=speaking,意思是说好听的话。根据英语委婉语详解词典的定义,委婉语是一种用无害的或悦耳的词语替代那些较直接的、唐突的言词,用善意的话语把事实掩盖起来的修饰手段。委婉语存在于各种语言中,是语言的一种普遍现象,很早就引起人们的注意和研究。人们对委婉语的研究主要集中在词汇层次,如用pass way来代替die。事实上,通过语法和语用手段也可以表达委婉的意思,而且这种手段在商务英语信函中应用极为广泛。人们常常借用委婉语,礼貌、委婉地陈述自己的观点和愿望,提出请求或建议,以利于创造良好的商务环境,达到双方各自预期的目的。根据Grice的会话含意理论(Grice,1967),“言语交际双方都有相互合作、求得交际成功的愿望,为此,人们要遵守一些诸如真实、关联、清楚等原则和准则。这就是所谓的‘合作原则’”(何自然,1997)。委婉语虽然违反了交际中的质的原则,但依据关联理论的两条原则:“认知原则———人类的认知倾向于同最大程度的关联性相吻合;交际原则———话语会产生对关联的期待。”(何自然&冉永平,2001)委婉语不会影响交际的成功,因为接受者可以依据话语的关联性解码说话人所要传达的信息。三、委婉语的构造手段委婉语从构造手段来看,主要通过语音手段、词汇手段、语法手段、语用手段等手段。语音委婉手段主要指运用语音异化,如小孩撒尿用“piss-piss”代替“pass water”,词汇委婉手段是指用悦耳的不伤对方面子的词语,如以前用“claim department”来负责客户的投诉和索赔,现在用“customer service”(客户服务部)来缓和商家和顾客的关系。在商务英语信函中的委婉语以语法和语用手段为主,主要包括语气虚拟法、语态被动法、词句否定法、语气弱化法、使用半动词法等五种方法。在Brown和Levinson提出的“面子论”中,核心理论是“威胁面子的行为”(face threatening acts,简称FTAs),也就是说话语中总是含有不同程度的使对方或自己的面子受损的因素,在商务英语信函中存在很多“威胁对方面子的行为”,因为交易双方就交易的价格、装运、索赔、保险等,不可避免要向对方提出建议、劝告、请求甚至命令。为了减轻对方面子受损程度,可以使用语气虚拟的手段来委婉、温和地表达自己的观点、请求和建议。如:1)If it were not for the larger orders we receive from a number of our regular customer, we could not have quoted for supplies even at that price.(反还盘)要不是我们接到许多老客户的大量定单,我们尚不能给这些货物报如此低的价格。比较:If it is not for the larger orders we receive from a number of our regular customer, we cannot quote for supplies even at that price.例句中由于动词采用了虚拟语气的形式,使商务洽谈双方的语气大为和缓,大大减轻了对方面子受损的FTAs。这种为了给对方留出更多面子采用的礼貌策略(negative-politeness strategies)有利于业务的开展和贸易关系的确立。2.语态被动法英语语态分为主动和被动两种,尤其是在表示批评、建议、要求时,用被动语态可以避免直接触及施动者(自己或对方),使口气更加婉转。在商务英语信函中,特别向对方“发出命令或请求,给对方人压力,让他做或不做某事”时,为了给对方保存面子,采用被动语态。如:1)It has to be stressed that shipment must be effected within the prescribed time limit, as a further extension will not be considered.(装运)必须强调,货物装运必须按期进行,任何进一步延期的要求将不予考虑。比较:We have to stress that you must effect shipment within the prescribed time limit, as a further extension will not be considered.由于交货日期临近,谨请贵方尽快开立信用证。句中三处采用了被动语态的形式,委婉易于让对方接受,如果采用主动语态的形式会使对方的负面面子受到威胁。3.词句否定法汉语中常用词句否定法来对事物的性质、状况或人的行为、品貌等进行委婉的赞扬或批评,如“信誉不错”“行情不佳”“价格不高”等,这比“信誉很好”“行情极佳”“价格便宜”等词语语气和缓,语意含蓄。在商务英语中,这种委婉语更是大量使用,以使陈述的观点、提出的要求或建议,无论是肯定还是否定,赞扬还是批评,较少主观武断,更具有商榷的余地。4.语气弱化法在商务英语信函中,对对方的建议或要求,使用直接的否定词或肯定词显得过于武断,疏远了双方之间的关系,不利于双方在友好互信的基础上建立贸易伙伴关系,因此常用各种方法弱化语气,创造平等和谐的合作气氛。如:在否定句中加上really, always, quite, too, particularly等副词,使得否定程度弱化,为对方留下考虑回旋的余地。5.使用半动词法半动词在功能上介于主动词与助动词之间,本身带有词义。英语中有些半动词语义模糊,表示说话人对所说事情的推测,从而使话语的肯定语气趋于缓和。这类动词仅限seem, appear, be likely to等少数几个,但在商务英语信函中使用频繁,如:As you seem to take advantage of our leniency in this matter, we now have to give you the final notice.(索赔)对于此事,贵方似乎在趁机利用我公司的宽容态度。我们不得不向你方发出最后通告函。比较:As you take advantage of our leniency in this matter, we now have to give you the final notice.例中写信人婉转地批评了对方“在趁机利用我公司的宽容态度”的做法,由于使用了缓解语气的半助动词seem而使语气得体,避免伤害对方的面子。

topic1:简析英语委婉语应用领域一、日常生活领域1. 关于死亡的委婉语2. 关于贫穷的委婉语3. 表达疾病、生理和智力缺陷的委婉语4. 与性有关的委婉语二、社会政治、经济领域1. 社会政治方面2. 经济方面三、军事领域四、职业领域五、教育领域topic2: 英汉委婉语的文化内涵与语用功能一、英汉委婉语的定义二、英汉委婉语的文化内涵1. 宗教迷信与委婉语的起源2. 具有社会等级标志的委婉语3. 反映民族心理和社会生活的委婉语4. 反映人们道德价值观的委婉语三、英汉委婉语的语用功能1. 避免忌讳2. 表示礼貌和尊敬3. 化消极因素为积极因素4. 掩饰事实真相四、总结topic3:英语委婉语探究一、前言二、英语委婉语的语用特征(一)民族文化性(二)时代性(三)地域性(四)语域变异性三、英语委婉语的交际功能(一)避讳功能(二)润滑功能(三)礼貌功能(四)掩饰功能四、结束语

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Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies 二语词汇习得策略 [摘 要] 词汇是构成语言的基本单位,词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家. Wilkins (1972) 说过:“没有语法,人们不能表达很多东西;而没有词汇,人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇,从而提高学习效率和习得效果。 关键字: 二语词汇习得 词汇习得策略 元认知策略 认知策略 Abstract Vocabulary is the basic unit of a language. Language acquisition plays an important role in language learning. Famous linguistics D. A. Wilkins said, “Without grammar, very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary, nothing can be conveyed (Lewis, 1993:16).” It speaks volumes for the importance of vocabulary in language learning. This paper aims to analysis the second language acquisition strategies and applies to different levels of learners. According to the different levels, the learners should choose the proper methods and strategies to promote learning efficiency and acquisition effect. Key words: Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition; Vocabulary Acquisition Strategies; Metacognitive strategy; Cognitive strategy Introduction With economic globalization and multi-polarization of the world, especially the population of the internet, English becomes more and more important, because it is considered as the tool for absorbing and communicating information. As we all known, vocabulary acquisition is one of the most noticed-question of the second language learners. “Vocabulary” appears in the area of linguists’ study. Nowadays, researchers still can not give a complete and reasonable definition of vocabulary. Since 1970s, the second language vocabulary acquisition research has gradually become the hot point and important subject in the second language vocabulary acquisition research area. These researches aim to discuss the efficiency vocabulary memory strategies to promote the memory skills and vocabulary levels. Then how to acquire vocabulary become popular among the researchers. Wenden &Rubin (1987), O’Malley& Chamot (1990) refer to the content of vocabulary acquisition strategies; Rubin (1987) and Oxford (1990) classify the memory strategy to the direct cognitive strategies. Especially, CohenAphek (1981), Porte (1988), O’Malley (1990), Vann (90), Cohen (1990), etc made a basic searching of vocabulary acquisition. In a word, there are various opinions in how to acquire vocabulary. Firstly, it talks about the importance of vocabulary. Secondly, what does it mean to “acquire” a word? This paper mainly aims to the detail analysis of the vocabulary acquisition from three aspects:Meta-cognitive Strategy; Cognitive Strategy and Social or Affective Strategy. Especially, it highlights the effect of the context and rending to vocabulary acquisition. This paper talks about the applications of the vocabulary acquisition strategies. And it puts forward some problems and difficulties of vocabulary acquisition. This paper also discusses the influencing factors to the acquisition. It includes the mother tongue, age, language contact, logical thinking ability, identity degree, and academic motivation . The purpose of this paper is to rise the awareness of English learners that the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the vocabulary acquisition strategies can not be neglected, and each strategies is deeply rooted in its language. Through the analysis of the theory of study, the paper tries to draw the learner’s attention to the strategies of the second language vocabulary acquisition and using the vocabulary in communication. In order to improve the acquisition efficiency, some strategies put into practice are introduced. The first presents the importance of vocabulary, some basic concepts of vocabulary and vocabulary learning, the second part tells what does it mean to know a word, the third part deals with the theory of vocabulary acquisition and presents the factors and differences influencing the vocabulary acquisition. The fourth part is detailed discussion of vocabulary acquisition strategies in different levels of learners. The last part is conclusion. Literature review 1. The importance of vocabulary As the first time, when we go to school and our English teacher will tell us that vocabulary is of great importance in learning English. After several years, we understand words gradually, especially when we study in high school. If we know a little about vocabulary, we may have poor English. That is because the listening, speaking, reading and writing show the necessary of learning vocabulary. Many researchers agree that lexis is at least as important as structure, because it is using wrong words and not wrong grammar that usually breaks down communication. Mistakes in lexis much more often lead to misunderstanding and may be less generously tolerated outside classroom than mistakes in syntax. (Carter, 1987). As Stephen Krashen remarked, “When students travel, they don’t carry grammar books, they carry dictionaries. A significant role of vocabulary in both teaching and learning processes was first stated by Stephen Krashen in The Natural Approach (1985): “Vocabulary is basic for communication. If acquirers do not recognize the meaning of the key words used by those who address them they will be unable to participate in the conversation.” Words are basic tools in human communication; therefore they determine the main part of people’s life-relationships between people and associations with the surrounding world that people live in. The larger one’s vocabulary, the easier it is to express one’s thoughts and feelings. In real communication, correctly and idiomatically used vocabulary can even decrease some structural inaccuracy and grammar errors. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). So learners should enrich and expand their knowledge of words as much as possible in order to communicate effectively in a foreign language. 2. What does it mean to “know” a word? Knowing a word is not a simple phenomenon. In fact, it is quite complex and goes far beyond the word’s meaning and pronunciation. (Zhang Jiying, 2002). Richards (1976) think knowing a word means also knowing the frequency of words and their likely collocates; being aware of the functional and situation limitations that apply; knowledge of the “syntactic behavior”; derivational forms and word class; associative and connotative knowledge; semantic value-breaking down words into minimal units as with componential analysis (see Katz&Fodor1963or Leech1974); knowing the other (possible) meaning associated. Nagy and Scott (2000) identify several dimensions that describe the complexity of what it means to know a word. First, word knowledge is incremental, which means that readers need to have many exposures to a word in different contexts before they “know” it. Second, word knowledge is multidimensional. This is because many words have multiple meanings and serve different functions in different function in different sentences, texts, and even conversations. Third, word knowledge is interrelated in that knowledge of one word connects knowledge of other words. What all of this means is that “knowing” a word is a matter of degree rather than an all-or-nothing proposition (Beck&Mckeown, 1991; Nagy&Scott, 2000). The degree of knowing a word are reflected in the precision with which we use a word, how quickly we understand a word, and how well we understand and use words in different modes and different purpose. The memory strategy, cognitive strategy, social strategy and metacognitve strategy are used more frequently than the affective strategy and compensative strategy. Conclusion This paper has attempted to provide some theories of second language vocabulary acquisition and some strategies. Such as metacognitive strategy, cognitive strategy, and social strategy. However, this paper also put forward some microcosmic strategy. As a matter of fact, vocabulary acquisition should combine the context. In addition, this paper hasn’t mentioned that culture is also an important factor in vocabulary acquisition. In the study of second language vocabulary acquisition, we should pay attention to the process and the acquiring results. This paper focuses on the study of the second language vocabulary acquisition strategies. Bibliography [1] . Chamot. The Learning Strategies of ESL Students. In A. L. Wenden & J. Rubin, (eds), Learner Strategies in Language Learning, 1987. [2] Cater. R. and M. McCarthy. Vocabulary and Language Teaching. New York: Longman, 1987. [3] Nation, L. S. P. Teaching and Learning Vocabulary. New Newbury House Publishers, 1990. [4] O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. U.. Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition [J]. Cambridge University Press, 1990:12-15. [5] 陈桦,张益芳.中国儿童英语词汇记忆策略探究[J].外语学刊,2001(4). [11] 戴曼纯. 论第二语言词汇习得研究[J]. 外语教学与研究,2002(2). [12] 徐德凯.大学英语词汇教学理论与实践[M].长春:吉林出版集团有限责任公司,2009. [6] 王文宇.观念、策略与英语词汇记忆[J].外语教学与研究,1998(1). [13] 文秋芳. 英语学习策略论.上海:上海外语教育出版社,1996. [7] 吴霞,王蔷.非英语专业本科生词汇水平研究. 外语教学与研究,1998(1). [15] 张纪英.英语词汇学教学与研究[M]. 武汉:华中科技大学出版社,2007. [16] 朱厚敏. 英语词汇学习策略研究[M] 长春:吉林大学出版社,2009.

有写好的,直接用

第三节语法学习策略研究一、对英语语法学习的认识(一)为什么要学习语法?每一个英语学习者都有不同的学习目的,同一个学习者在不同的学习阶段也有不同的学习目的。语法学习也是一样,学习语法时,每个学习者首先应该问自己这样一个问题:我为什么要学习英语语法?对这个问题的回答直接影响学习者对语法学习的重视程度和对语法学习策略的运用。谈到语法学习,许多学生总认为太枯燥无味,语法学习的目的无非是为了翻译句子、通过各种升学考试。诚然,没有足够的语法知识储备,就无法顺利通过现行的各类考试。但如果认为学语法仅仅是为了考试,必然会导致语法学习的被动性。从长远看,对语法学习甚至整个英语学习会产生消极的影响。Hymes(1972)在谈到外语学习时指出,外语学习的最终目的是培养交际能力,而学习者所要具备的交际能力至少包括以下四个方面,即语法能力、社会文化能力、语篇能力和策略能力。其中语法能力是其他诸能力的基础,对于准确表达理解是至关重要的。swan(1985)指出,语法对于关系独立而又松散的语言体系来说是一把保护伞。因此,语法学习是语言学习的一项重要内容,直接影响学生综合语言能力的提高。离开语法知识的学习,语言运用能力的提高只能是一句空话。(二)要学哪些语法?英语语法知识虽不如单词那样浩瀚无边,但也数量庞大。那么一般的语言学习者应该学习哪些语法知识呢?一般来讲,语法可分为理论语法、参考语法和教学语法。理论语法主要是为专门研究语法的人提供理论依据,对语言实践没有什么指导作用。参考语法是某种语言的语法集合。语法学习者和语法研究者遇到语法难题时可以从参考语法中l2寻找答案。教学语法,也叫实用语法,是专门为指导学习者学习语言而编写的语法。这类语法一般只包括某种语言中最基本和最常用的语法规则。英语学习者一般要以学习实用英语语法为主,但这并不是说每个学习者都必须学习和掌握全部实用语法。学习者要根据自己的最终语言学习目的和各阶段的学习需要,规定自己在语法学习方面的目标。例如,以新版人教版高中英语教材为例,分词是高中二年级的重点和难点语法,但学生在高一时可能就已经接触到相关的包含分词的句子,教师此时不宜做重点讲解,只要点到为止即可,学生也只要看懂就行,没有必要做深入的研究。因此,教师和学生必须就学习哪些语法和什么时候学这些语法之类的问题达成共识。只有这样,师生才能在语法教学和学习中相互配合,从而整体提高语法学习和语法教学的效果。(三)语法要学到什么程度?对英语学习者来说,确定语法学习的范围之后,还应考虑语法应掌握到什么程度。要回答这个问题,我们先要思考一下学习语法的目的是什么。我们都知道,语法学习本身不是语言学习的目的,学习语法是为了更好的学习语言。但是,关于语法在语一言学习中究竟起什么作用的问题,过去研究的不够深入。近年来对语法的研究表明,语法最终对语言的作用主要有两个:1促进理解;2监控输出。所谓促进理解,是指运用所学语法知识解决学习中尤其是阅读中所遇到的一些疑难问题。当学习者不理解某个复杂句子的意思时,往往通过分析句子结构、句子各部分的作用及其相互关系,以期达到理解的目的。语法的第二个作用是监控输出。很多英语学习者学了多年的英语,总的英语水平己经相当高,但在口头和书面表达中仍然是错误百出。这说明学习者没有掌握足够的语法知识或没有充分利用掌握的语法知识来监控和调整语言输出。如此下去,必然会影响学习者的语言输出质量。笔者认为,对于高中英语中所出现的一些重点语法,高中生不仅要看得懂,而且能用得上。也就是说,他们要在理解语法的基础上灵活运用,只有这样,才能驾驭语法,使之更好地为自己的外语学习服务。二国内外语法学习策略研究关于语法学习的一些认识非常重要,但更关键的是如何学习语法,也就是语法学习策略。在语言学习策略的研究基础上,国内外开展了针对具体的语法学习策略的研究。一国内语法学习策略的研究随着新课程改革的进一步深入,作为教授语言规律的语法教学也在不断的变化,对它的理论研究越来越多,而语法教学改革方面的研究却不多见。众多的研究者主要侧重语法教学策略、方法的研究。然而,从学生角度出发研究学生语法学习策略的不多。文秋芳(1996)运用定性分析的方法,通过对个案的分析探讨,说明了由于英语学习成功者与不成功者在学习方法上的不同导致其在学习成绩上的明显差异;有一些专家、学者从理论层面上提出了一些语法学习策略。程晓堂认为:语法学习应在理解的基础上学习;积极主动归纳总结语法规则;从错误中学习;在交际中学习语法等。贾冠杰认为应通过阅读文章学语法。在语法学习中要善于自己发现错误,避免重复错误。同时,要一记熟语法规则。通过研究发现,学习者在学习语法时或多或少地使用语法学习策略。不同类型的学习者使用的策略也不一样(晨梅梅,2003)。赵明(1999)以实验的方式对大学生进行英语语法学习策略的研究。结果表明:采用不同策略的三组之间,语法学习效果存在极其显著的差异,其中组织策略的有效性优于精加工策略,更优于复述策略。陈兆军、陈建春(2006)采用定量分析的方法,调查了英语专业本科生使用英语语法学习策略的情况,结果发现:语法学习策略与语法学习成绩呈现一般显著性正相关,高分组和低分组学生在各类语法学习策略使用上都具有显著性差异。根据使用频率,学生在学习语法时依次使用情感策略,社交策略,认知策略和元认知策略。但这些调查大多来自于大学,没有来自高中的。很少有人从实验研究的角度对中学英语语法学习策略进行过系统地研究。二.国外语法学习策略的研究根据语言学习策略的定义,语法学习策略就是指学习者为了使语法学习变得更容易、更快、更好而使用的方法和技巧。在第二章中我们已经讨论了语言学习的策略。在对语言学习策略的确定和分类过程中,许多研究都间接地论及了具体实用的语法学习策略。有关专家指出,工t’5betterforlearnerstostudythegrammarindividuallyandindePendentlythanasaPartofClaSSroomlesson.但很少有单独的语法学习策略被深度研究。尽管如此,结合语言学习策略研究的结果和具体的语法教学策略的研究,我们就会从中得出许多的英语语法学习策略的初步性的结论。在理论上,当代英语语法存在着各学派间的分歧。由美国结构语言学派代表里奇和斯瓦特维克(LeeCh&SVartvik)倡导的交际语法,强调语言的交际功能和实际操作,重视听说在教学中的应用;美国著名语言学家乔姆斯基(Chomsky)提出的转换生成语法侧重剖析句子深层结构,采用动态观点,说明句子的生成过程;以美国语言学家福莱斯(Fries)为代表的结构主义语法则崇尚词类、句型等语法结构。(转引自赵明,1999)各学派的语法纷争在很大程度上影响着学生对于语法学习策略的选择。有证据表明,上述各语法流派与美国心理学家麦克奇尔(Mckeachie,1990)等划分的认知策略—包括复述策略、精加工策略和组织策略—存在一定程度的对应关系。以重复、试背、多感官参与为主要方法的复述策略与交际语法的要求相吻合;精加工策略力求寻找字面背后的深层意义,以便将新学习的材料与头脑中己有的知识联系起来,其核心内容为生成策略,与转换生成语法之间存在着相通之处;组织策略以归类法和纲要法为代表,与结构主义语法相对应。实验证明,在语法学习中所采用的学习策略,以组织策略最优、精加工策略次之、复述策略再次之。ElliS认为,向学习者教授语法的最佳途径是通过对学习者语法意识的培养。他认为培养学生的语法意识能使学习者主动地去发现目的语本身的规律和特征,然后通过思考逐步理解这些规律和特征,从而促进语言的习得。Rutherford和Sharwood一Smith认为,学习者的第二语言学习水平是否得到提高,有赖于对其母语和目标语进行语法结构比较,而语法意识的培养能帮助学生有意识地认识目标语语法结构特征,从而促进学生进行这种语法比较,提高第二语言学习的能力。那么如何培养学生的语法意识呢?ElliS指出语言教学中至少应提供学习者运用语言交际的机会,包括听说读写,使他们在交际活动中,增强语法意识。ElliS(1995)还认为,语法练习活动包括尽量给学习者提供大量的机会,以通过控制的和自由的语言运用来产生目的语的结构。鉴于此,在高中英语语法教学中,教师同样应在培养学生语法意识、加强语法基础知识训练的前提下,以认知策略的各种方法为教授重点,开展语法教学,以便学生在高效地掌握知识的同时,得到能力和智慧的培养。第三章高中英语语法学习策略运用情况调查和分析第一节高中教师语法学习策略教学观念调查与分析为了更全面、准确地掌握学生学习策略的运用情况,从而有针对性地进行学习策略教学与培训,本人首先采用访谈为主、随堂听课为辅的方式调查了解本校五个同年级的教师语法教学的方法及他们对语法学习策略教学的看法。一教师访谈访谈的内容主要包括以下几个方面:1.教师在英语语法教学中一般采用的方法2.教师对英语语法学习策略的了解3.教师在英语课堂教学中进行策略教学的程度4.进行语法学习策略教学可能遇到的问题二.调查结果及分析1.教师在英语语法教学中所采用的方法被调查的五位教师中普遍采用教师讲解,然后让学生练习及考试加以巩固,最后教师再讲解的方法。他们还提到,教师讲解得越详细,学生听得越糊涂,越觉得语法学习枯燥无味,实在不知该怎么教语法。后来的随堂听课也充分证明了以上的观点。2.教师对英语语法学习策略的了解被调查的教师普遍对英语语法学习策略教学认识不够,个别教师甚至无法分清学习方法和学习策略的区别。3.教师在课堂教学中进行策略教学的程度在被调查的教师中,没有一位教师曾经进行系统的英语语法学习策略教学。但都在教学中有意无意地教给学生一些英语学习方法。4.进行语法学习策略教学可能遇到的问题被调查的教师提出了以下一些疑问:语法教学有别于词汇教学,在英语语法教学中英实施哪些有效的学习策略?在英语语法教学中进行学习策略教学需要占用一定的课时,如何保证语法教学和策略教学两不误?同时他们还提出这样一个问题:怎样训练才能使每个学生都能学习到并运用好适合自己的学习策略?第二节高中学生语法学习策略运用情况调查和分析一研究对象及工具本校(浙江省慈溪育刁’中学)2005届高二(9)(10)两个班的113名学生参加了本次调查和实验。两个班均为理科普通班,在高一结束分班后,两个班的期中、期末英语平均分十分接近,相差不超过一分。调查工具是一份英语语法学习策略问卷调查表,是笔者参考oxford(1990)设计的学习策略调查表StrategyInventoryforLanguageLearning(SlLL)及文秋方设计的英语学习策略调查表之后,结合自身的语法教学体会,自行设计的。整个问卷从元认知策略、认知策略、记忆策略、补偿策略、情感和社交策略16

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