英语语言学1500字论文
On suprasegmental features 一． Introduction So far we have been talking about phonetic features as they apply to single phonetic segments, or phones. Phonetic features can also apply to a string of several sounds, such as a syllable, or an entire word or utterance. The study of phonological features which applies to groups larger than the single segment, are known as suprasegmental features, such as the syllable or the word. The study of these features is known as prosody. It mainly includes syllable, stress, pitch, tone, and intonation. In this paper, I will talk about the suprasegmental features in great detail. Key words: phonetic, suprasegmental.二． Syllable The most obvious prosodic feature in language is the syllable. Let's briefly discuss the notion of syllables. Like all of our other basic linguistic concepts, although everyone knows what a syllable is, the concept "syllable" is difficult to define in absolute terms. A syllable can be divided into three parts, that is, onset, nucleus, and coda, of which nucleus is a must. A syllable that has no coda is called an open syllable while a syllable with coda is called a closed syllable. In English only long vowels and diphthongs can occur in open syllables. The onset may be empty or filled by a cluster of as many as three consonants, while the coda position may be filled as many as four consonants. The maximal onset principle states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. In some languages, syllables are always open, that is, they always end in a vowel, never a consonant. (Hawaiian) On the other hand, every Hawaiian syllable must begin with a consonant. (Aloha spoken as a single word begins in a glottal stop.) In other languages, syllables are always closed; they must end in a consonant (Navaho): Háá'ishah dididiljah. Let's build a fire. Táá diné 'ooljéé'go naaskai' Three men went to the moon. (Like Hawaiian, they must also begin in a consonant.)三． Stress The nature of stress The word stress is used differently by different authors, and the relationship between stress, emphasis, accent and prominence is also defined differently. Robins has defined it as “a generic term for the relatively greater force exerted in the articulation of part of utterance”. The nature of stress is simple enough—practically everyone would agree that the first syllable of words like“father”, “open” is stressed, that the middle syllable is stressed in “potato”, “apartment” and the final syllable is stressed in “about”, “perhaps”, and most people feel they have some sort of idea of what the difference is between stressed and unstressed syllables, though they might explain it in many different production of stress is generally believed to depend on the speaker using more muscular energy than is used for unstressed syllables. From the perceptual point of view, all stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, and that is “prominence”. Roach has manifested that at least four different factors are important to make a syllable prominent:i) Loudness: Most people seem to feel that stressed syllables are louder than unstressed ones; in other words, loudness is a component of ) Length: The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence; the syllables which are made longer than the others will be heard as ) Pitch: Pitch in speech is closely related to the frequency of vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical notion of low-pitched and high-pitched notes; if one syllable is said with a pitch that is noticeably different from that of the others, this will have a strong tendency to produce the effect of ) Quality: a syllable will tend to be prominent if it contains a vowel that is different in quality from neighboring vowels. Languages differ in how they use ) In some languages, each syllable is equally stressed or unstressed，as in Cambodian2) the syllable in each word is more stressed. The place of stress is fixed on a certain syllable:1) initial. Finnish, Hungarian and other Finno-Ugric languages2) penultimate. Polish,3) final. ) Complex set of rules. In Bulgarian nouns and verbs have separate sets of rules for stress placement. Hopi (phonetic: first syllable of a two syllable word: síkwi meat; in words of three or more syllables, accent falls on the first long vowel: máamatsi to recognize; or on the first short vowel before a consonant cluster: péntani to write; otherwise it falls on the next to last syllable: wunúvtu stand up)The place of stress is ) In Russian the stress is completely random: xoroshó, xoró) In English the stress is more predictable but still random. Usually a middle syllable of a longer word receives the stress. In two syllable words stress is rando and often renders differences in meaning: project/to project, produce/produce, and insult/ to insult. Some languages have more than one stress per word: English is such a language. In English, words of four syllables or more have a primary and a secondary stress. Some English compounds have phrasal stress on the first element of the compound. Phrasal stress often distinguishes meaning in adjective/noun combinations. Sentence stress in English According to He Shanfen (1992), English sentence stress has two main functions:⑴ to indicate the important words in the sentence; ⑵ to serve as the basis for the rhythmic structure of the sentence. Consequently, in connected English speech, sentence stress usually falls on content ( or lexical) words, which carry the basic meaning of a sentence, . nouns, adjectives, adverbs etc. Those which are usually unstressed in sentences are form (or structural) words, which show grammatical relationships, such as articles, auxiliary and modal verbs, monosyllabic prepositions, etc.
语言学在人类文明史中具有悠久的历史和深远的影响,语言学在某种程度上记录了人类历史的演变程序。下文是我为大家整理的的范文，欢迎大家阅读参考! 篇1 论模糊语言学与英语教学 摘要：语言的模糊性是语言的基本属性之一，如同语言的社会性、符号性、系统性、生成性、冗余性一样，各种语言不无具有模糊性，英语也不例外。就模糊语言学在英语教学中的运用、二者之间的关系等方面谈谈认识，以期抛砖引玉，与同行一起探讨这个新学科领域的话题。 关键词：模糊性;英语教学;教学大纲 自从最早由美国加利福尼亚大学电机工程系控制论专家查德. Zadeh在《资讯与控制》Information and Control杂志上发表论文“模糊集”Fuzzy Sets开始，就标志著模糊学或模糊理论的诞生，随着模糊理论研究的发展，模糊语言学Fuzzy linguistics也应运而生。虽然，模糊语言学是最近二三十年才兴起的一门学科，并且是介于语言学与模糊学之间的边缘学科，然而，由于它是研究语言和言语中的模糊现象的学科，其模糊语言的理论和方法可以用来指导外语教学。因此，从它的诞生开始就引起了语言教学领域，尤其是英语教学领域的高度重视。 一、模糊语言学与英语教师 尽管模糊语言学是语言理论学科系列中正在形成的一门新学科，但由于在我们赖以生存的现实中模糊事物和人类思维中模糊概念、模糊逻辑的普遍性，更由于模糊的特征是英语语言的一种重要的自然特征，作为英语教师要搞好英语教学，就非常有必要在语言理论基础方面增加模糊语言学的理论知识。 完全可以想象，如果英语教师具备了一些模糊语言学的基本知识，就能较好地把握语言的模糊性，在英语教学实践过程中与纷繁复杂的语言现象打交道时，处理和解决语言问题就能更加灵活得体。例如，在英语翻译教学中，模糊语言学理论尤为重要。我们知道，由于自然语言中绝大多数词都是模糊词，因此，在翻译时处处都会遇到模糊言语现象，也迫使译者在处理这些现象时使用模糊翻译方法。下面引用一段欧亨利小说While the Auto Waits中的描写来说明这个问题： To repeat：Her dress was gray，and plain enough to mask its impeccancy of style and fit. A large meshed veil imprisoned her turban hat and a face that shone through it with a calm and unconscious beauty. She had e there at the same hour on the day previous， and on the day before that;and there was one who knew it. 再叙述一下那位姑娘吧：她身着灰色衣服，十分朴素，但很时髦，又非常合身，一条大网面纱遮住了她的头巾式无檐帽和面孔，但透过面纱，仍能瞥见她那文静而又美丽的脸庞。她昨天、前天在同样的时候来过这儿，坐上片刻。几天来，有一个人注意到了这种情形。 对比以上译文，可以发现在对英文的翻译中使用了许多语义模糊的词语，就连动词Shone的原意也不得已而忽略了，代替以模糊表达意思“瞥见”。而在上面这段文字中尤其是在文艺作品的翻译中，如果不采用模糊表达的翻译方法，既无法将原文的基本意思展现出来，更谈不上翻译文学作品要达到的“信、达、雅”的标准，自然也谈不上文学翻译的再创造了。由此我们也体会到，作为英语教师掌握一定模糊语言学理论知识的必要性和重要性。 二、运用模糊语言学理论正确认识教学大纲的模糊性 统一的英语教学大纲是英语教学的指导性档案，可以说是英语教学的指挥棒。然而，由于教学大纲内容本身存在着一定的弹性和不精确性，也就是在此谈到的模糊性，当在看待英语教学大纲时也不能视为“放之四海而皆准”的硬性准则。 例如，在针对全国普通高专颁布的《普通高等专科英语课程教学基本要求》中关于教学目的的内容是：“培养学生掌握必需的、实用的英语语言知识和语言技能，具有阅读和翻译与本专业有关的英文资料的初步能力，并为进一步提高英语的应用能力打下一定的基础。”以上短短的一段话就包含了几个模糊限制语，譬如“必要的、初步的、一定的”。这些不精确的用语本身就说明了高专英语教学目的具有模糊性，而这些模糊性的限制语又恰恰说明了高专英语教学目的适时得体，符合实际的要求。同时，这对于评价教师的业绩以及学生的成绩都大有好处。 比如，在评价一位英语教师的教学效果时，我们能不能因为某些学生的英语应用能力强而另一些学生较弱就判定这位教师的业务能力不行，或教学态度不好呢?如果这样认为，恐怕这种评价就有失公允，也不切合实际，因为，在高专英语的教学基本要求中的教学目的本身具有模糊性，不精确性。并且，事实上，一些学生的应用能力强而部分学生弱都是教学中必然存在的现象，也是教学大纲允许的，也正是由于教学大纲中教学目的的模糊性而必然造成的结果。 除了以上谈到的教学目的具有模糊性外，其中“应用能力”这个术语也具有模糊性。虽然教学目的中明确提出“培养学生掌握必需的、实用的英语语言知识和语言技能，具有阅读和翻译与本专业有关的英文资料的初步能力，并为进一步提高英语的应用能力打下一定基础”。 在这里虽然明确提出了“应用能力”，然而且不说模糊性极强的“一定的基础”的表述，仅就“应用能力”这个术语在大纲中并没有做任何说明，因而表现出较强的不确定性和模糊性。事实上，根据现今外语教学领域里大多数专家的共识，英语“应用能力”主要指的是由美国著名的社会语言学家海姆斯提出的“交际能力”。这种“交际能力”的概念还包含了由转换生成语法的创始人乔姆新基提出的“语言能力”petence.根据海姆斯的观点，“交际能力”包含了： 1语言能力——即语言知识，包括语音、词汇、语法的知识; 2社会语言能力sociolinguistic petence——即使用功能变体和言语功能的能力; 3话语能力discourse petence——即学会怎样用语言来做事、交流; 4对应能力strategic petence——交际是一种彼此之间的协调，在协调中有各种对应手段，如怎样能开始一段谈话，怎样转换话题，怎样结束谈话等。 因此，就“应用能力”这个术语运用于英语教学中时，英语教师究竟该怎样认识和理解，究竟该怎样去培养学生的“应用能力”，以及怎样理解“交际能力”中包含的四种能力，或许对于许多教师来说仍旧是模糊的。然而，只有当我们了解了“应用能力”的模糊性之后的这样一个大前提，才可能对“教学大纲”和“教学目的”有进一步的理解和认识。这样，在英语教学过程中才不会简单地、绝对地看待“应用能力”的问题，也才能符合实际地、有的放矢地组织教学，以期收到更好的教学效果。 三、运用模糊语言学正确认识英语教学法的模糊性 英语教学法流派多种多样，理论各异，新观点、新方法、新学派层出不穷。到目前为止，已有十几种教学法流派存在。如，传统的语法翻译法Grammar Translation Method、听说法Audio lingual Method、阅读法Reading Method、认知法Cognitive Approach、暗示法Suggest Method、视听法Audio Visual Method，以及近几年产生的程式教学Programmed Instruction和计算机辅助语言教学puter aided Language Instruction等等。 从这些英语教学学派的产生和发展历史来看，它们都不是随心所欲的，都有其一定的社会文化背景，其哲学、教育学、心理学、语言学等理论基础之间既存在着相互排斥、相互矛盾的各具特色的个性，同时也存在着相互制约、相互联络、相互继承发展的共性关系。而恰好就是这种共性关系使各学派之间的界限彼此模糊，呈现出你中有我，我中有你的局面。比如，听说法和视听法，这两种教学法既在基本特点上存在差异，又存在着共性，表现出二者之间的界限是模糊的。 听说法的基本特点强调：1以句型结构操练为主;2在口语基础上培养书面语;3不用母语;4反复模仿，强化操练。而视听法的基本特点强调：1幻灯影象和录音视听相结合;2感知整体结构的对话;3充分利用幻灯、录音视听教具;4在口语基础上进行书面语教学;5集中强化教育。 概括地讲，二者界限的模糊性表现在：1它们都强调在口语基础上培养书面语能力和用外语讲解外语以培养外语语感;2它们所产生的心理学基础都是行为主义心理学Behavioristic Psychology和描写语言学descriptive linguistics，而这就不可避免会使它们彼此之间存在着共性。 可见，在英语教学过程中了解并掌握英语教学法的不同流派的个性、共性以及彼此间的模糊性，从而扬长避短，博采众长，对于建设中国特色的外语教学法体系大有益处。 综上所述，探讨以英语为主的外语教学同模糊理论以及模糊语言学的关系，提倡用模糊语言学的理论和方法来指导英语教学，将有利于提高我国英语教学水平。 参考文献： [1]李晓明.模糊性：人类认识之谜.人民出版社，1985. [2]苗东升.模糊学导引.中国人民大学出版社，1987. [3]陈治安.模糊语言学概论.西南师范大学出版社，1997. [4]Chomsky， and Mind. New York： Harcourt，Brace & World，1972. [5]Zadeh，L. A.“Fuzzy sets” Information and Control，1963，8：338-2353. [6]Zadeh，.“Quantitative Fuzzy Semantics”，Information Sciences，1971，3：159-2176. 篇2 论大学英语语言学习策略 摘要：英语语言学习策略的研究是一个年轻的领域，本文对国内外英语语言学习策略研究的发展做了概括介绍，分析了大学英语教学存在的问题和探讨了英语语言学习策略的研究方法。 关键词：英语语言 策略 研究 在现代大学英语教学中，普遍呈现出来的现象为：高校英语语言教学人员对英语的教与学的认识已经发生了很大的变化，学生如何学习已成为教育研究的重点。 一、国内外英语语言学习策略研究的概况 语言学习策略是学习者为了取得更好的语言学习效果而采取的各种策略，即学习者在学习外语过程中对有效的学习方法的选择和使用。学习策略研究不仅有助于语言学习者的个体差异，而且对外语语言的教和学及建构产生了重大影响。国内外研究者以认知心理学为理论研究的基础，将英语学习策略分为认知策略、元认知策略、情感策略和交际策略。 一国外英语语言学习策略研究的发展 研究语言学习策略的外国研究者有Ruhin, Naiman ,Wong Filhnore，Stern, A Wenden, Jam M alley, Chamol, R Oxford以及A. Cohen等。20世纪70年代初，外语教学法研究停滞不前以及认知心理学的迅速发展促使外语教学研究的重点从研究教师如何“教”转向研究学习者如何“学”。这时的语言学习策略的研究在语习得研究中占有重要地位。 这一研究很快发展成语言学习策略的研究。旱期的语言学习策略研究注重归纳并描述学习策略和刘一学习策略进行分类。之后，研究者在研究的深度、广度及研究方法等方面有较大改进，是学习策略研究的第一个重大发展。早期的学习策略研究无论是在方法上还是在研究成果上都给后来的研究打下了良好的基础。 20世纪80年代后，语言学习策略的研究得到了迅速的发展，A. Wenden, Jam Mallev, U. Chamo}, R. Oxford以及A. Cohen等研究者刘一学习策略进行深入研究，最具典型性和代表性的是。Malley等人的研究，他们以认知学习理论为指出将语言认知过程和学习策略相关联，得出一整套理论化的语言学习策略。随着语言学习策略研究的深入开展，有关学习策略的论著也越来越多，如W enden和Ruhin于1987年编辑出版的论文集Learner Salegies in Language Learning《语言学习，}，的学习者策略。 Malley和Chamo于90年代出版的专著Learner Salegies in Second Language Acquisition《第一言习得中的学习策略》以及Oxford于1990年出版的专著LanguageLearning Every Teacher Should Know《语言学习策略:教师须知》等。Oxford还建立了语言学习策略调查问卷Salegiese InveWorv for Language Learning。 二国内英语语言学习策略研究的发展 我国对语言学习策略的研究从20世纪80年代中期开始，研究者有黄小华、桂诗春、刘润清、文秋芳等，他们在自己的论著中都涉及到语言学习策略。这此学者的研究为教育研究打下了良好的基础，他们的研究对于语言教学有指出意义，对英语学习者的学习也有实践指出意义。 这一阶段的语言学习策略研究有如下特点：第一，学习策略研究是以各种语言学习理论为指导的研究。Krashen的监控理论、Aderson的认知学习理论以及其他对学习者本体研究的成果都为学习策略研究者提供了丰富的理论基础。第二，学习策略研究逐渐从巨集观转向微观。研究者针刘一阅读理解策略、听力理解策略、词汇学习策略等进行单项研究。第三，研究者重视学习策略研究的方法，认为研究方法关系到研究结果的信度和效度。第四，学习策略研究从理论走向实践。研究者认为只要是被证明有效的学习策略，就可以培训学习者使川这此策略，从而提高他们的学习效果。 20世纪90年代以来，我国外语界学者们对中国学生的外语学习策略展开了广泛的研究，发表了大量论文。1996年，文秋芳所著《英语学习策略论—献给立志学好英语的朋友》成为国内第一部专门论述语言学习策略的著作。 2002年，程晓堂和郑敏编写的《英语学习策略》表明语言学习策略研究在我国进入了一个新的阶段。 二、大学英语教学存在的问题和英语语言策略研究方法 改革开放以来，我国的大学英语教学取得了迅猛的发展，教学质量取得了显著的提高。然而，由于各种复杂的因素，很多大学生在外语学习上花了大量的时间和精力，但学习的效果并不理想。有此教师仍采取传统的以知识讲解为重点的教学方法，忽视培养学生的学习方法和学习策略。 二目前大学英语教学存在的问题 随着国际交流的深入发展和竞争的日益激烈，社会对外语人才的去求在数量、质量、层次和种类上要求更高。然而，我国的大学英语教学明显滞后，相当部分大学生几乎把大学学习的前一两年都花在了英语学习上。造成这样结果的原因主要包括:外语教学理论研究薄弱;师资质量不高;;教学水平有限;外语教学应试倾向严重;外语教学上形式和教学方法缺乏创新;学生学习态度不积极;学习不得法;中小学、大学外语教学严重脱节等。 另一方面，我国外语教学理论研究和实践上也存在误区，如外语学习越早越好;外语是一门知识课;外语是教会的;外语学习有捷径可走;外语学习年限越氏越好;交际能力就是说话能力等。这此都影响了我国外语教学质量的提高与发展。 要提高大学英语教学水平，关键在于教师怎么教和学生怎么学。有此教师欠缺语言学习策略理论知识，未从学习者角度探索学习方法，因而无法指出学生的学习。因此，要使学生在英语学习中形成有效的学习策略，教师首先应参与学习策略的学习和研究。探讨和研究英语学习策略并在教学中指导和渗透学习策略，是当今英语教师又一个重要任务。 二英语语言学习策略研究方法 要指导和培训大学生英语学习策略，英语教师应掌握一定研究方法和技巧，学会观察和记录资料，并掌握分析方法。 一般来说，英语语言学习策略研究的型别有：自然调查survey,对研究contrastive study，相关性研究correlational study，发展研究developmental/ longudinal study和策略训练研究strategy training}。学习策略研究资料采集的方法有：观察法observation，问卷调查法}questionnaire ,访谈interview}，日记diary和口头报告verbal roport。 目前国内外的研究趋势是定性研究与定量研究相结合，而且定性研究有增加的趋势。研究者通常采用多种方式收集资料，以客观全面地反映事实、深入分析，避兔所得的结论的片面性。因此，英语教师在进行策略研究中应多角度采集资料，采用定性与定量研究，探索有效的指,,和培训学生的方法，提高教学效果和自身的科研水平。 参考文献： [1] Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition. University Press. 1990. [2] 束定芳.外语教学改革:问题与对策[J].上海:上海外语教育出版社.2005: 4.
How to improve your English in full detail (my experience) The Third EditionTo be good at English is not particularly easy but not terribly hard you start to learn sentences, or new words, the first and also the most important step is the "pronunciation". To pronounce perfectly you should buy a tape to assist you to learn and practise. This is the fundamental step to learn English, ignore or pay no attention to this step; you will not learn proper English and you will find the later steps more and more difficult. If you are solid and accurate in pronunciation, you will find the later steps much easier and you will stand firmly on the right mastering the pronunciation perfectly, it is the time to accumulate new words and useful expressions. Of course start from the simplest words like “hello, hi, you, me, he, him, his, her”, etc.... and expressions like “how are you, how old are you, how do you do”, etc.......... It is essential to write the words on a piece of paper so that you remember them well. Actually everyone had done these at his/her primary school.*************Now let me tell you how I learnt English in China. *******************Speaking:In China, you won't have enough chances to speak English. What I did was in the morning I got up early and read aloud the texts in the textbooks. The initial aim was to achieve the same speed as the tape, and then being able to read aloud the texts with the same style as the English announcer in the tape. By doing this, it helps you to consolidate your pronunciation and it is much easier to learn English in China because you can watch some TV channels in English. The more channels in English the better because you can choose your preferred programmes and it helps you to learn English with interests of your own, hence ideal for listening and expression/words is also very useful to write diaries. On writing diaries, it is not useful if you just write it without the care of grammar and spelling. When you finish you should always read your diaries again to check for errors and refine your sentences (. remove repetitive words, use better expressions, and sort out the structure of the sentences).Reading:It is also very important to read story books in English, starting from thin ones with not many new words. Read as many thin books as you possibly can. Little by Little you will want to read thicker books, and your reading ability will get even four elements together:I have to emphasise that when you do all these reading, listening, writing and speaking; you should join them together as a whole, apply the new words you learn from watching TV, reading books to your writing and enhancement of learning comes from getting hold of the possible opportunities to speak English (in China or abroad):In China, you should try to go to local English corner to practise your oral English. If you are abroad then you should make a lot of English or international friends so you always have the opportunity to speak Spoken English, attitude is very important. You need to be very keen and you must not be shy. Never be afraid to make mistakes. Always think that a talk in English with some one will help you can think in this way: since my parents have paid so much to support me to study abroad, the money is partly spent on the international environment for learning English; therefore I ought to try my best to take every opportunity to practise my English. My English has risen to a higher level in the last 2 years, because I talk in English most of the time. Having some international friends is particularly useful indeed. Summing up the activities:I have also been watching TV too. The real improvement lies in staying with international friends long enough and watching a lot of TV such as news, football, dramas, documentaries etc.... Writing diaries also helps me to remember good words, good expressions and practise sentence structuring.*****Now, I have finished talking about how to learn and improve General is the time to switch to "Your Major in English" *******************************Knowing general English on its own is not going to be sufficient for most people. Skills are as important as mastering another language. General English helps people to communicate with each other in their lives. Technical English helps you to take on challenges to change the world for the highest, to earn money for your living for the people who have a degree in English go abroad to learn something different but heavily based on the language such as Media study, Journalist, History, Education or even a bit more technical like Finance, Business Administration or is extremely useful to know more because there are so many words in English and they appear differently to each other. For people whose second language is English, will find it difficult to guess the meaning of a new sure, it is not possible to know a major first and put all your effort on that major, in the end you will have a rich vocabulary of that on learning Technical English:To master technical English in your area of study, there are two difficulties to , the language, because it is not your first language, you need to remember the terms, knowing how to pronounce it and spell , surely you need to understand the terms in a technical matter what field, it is going to be the same; the two difficulties above must be I take Physics as an example (note that whatever field you are looking into is going to be similar):The term "momentum" is basically the product of the mass of the object and the velocity it travels. Obviously, you need to understand mass and velocity as well. If you understand mass and velocity, then you get the explanation of the term "momentum" in physics, then you are most likely to understand the word and use it properly in the technical world of Physics. From this example, you can see how to understand a technical word in a technical fashion: you need to understand the very fundamental knowledge of a field to be able to understand more complex terminologies or learning technical English in your field of study, I have a good recommendation to save your time:To understand technical knowledge in your first language (Chinese), then you might not have the second it left to overcome is just the first difficulty (the language), hence the effort required is can give you an example of my own:When I was learning chemistry at A-level, I had already learnt inorganic chemistry at the equivalent level in China, so I had no difficulty whatsoever in learning inorganic chemistry in the UK in I had not learnt organic chemistry in China, and I was struggling significantly in learning organic chemistry in the UK due to dual difficulties.************OK, I have finished talking about how to improve your technical i will talk about IT (Information Technology), why is this important? Because nowadays it is the information age, you need to know computers, Internet, media and communications etc. Knowing how to use Internet to search information will help your English. ************I don't want to waffle too much on this. Computers are more and more important nowadays, everyone wants a computer and most people have their own computers. But most people are not using the right Operating System for learning English. Now I would like to introduce you to Debian Linux Operating system or a much nicer operating system called Ubuntu Linux. If you still don't have a computer you can buy a China's home grown computer based on a Loongson CPU. It saves your electricity and your time to deal with will help you to improve your English skills because you need to read some documents and follow the instructions to set up software programs, it also requires you to search the Internet (Google for example) to find the answers to your problems (. installations of software programs)you can read about the commands of Linux in the terminal by putting in "man
像语音学，音位学，以及形态学，句法都不好下手建议写社会语言学或是心理语言学方面的，可以深入对比一下中西方思维的差异之类的，应该是一个好的论点加油~~
英语1500字论文
Interest and talent: to go along with interest inThe most important thing is to do what you really want things to go along with Yao MingEinstein had a famous saying: "Interest is the best teacher." Ancients Yiyun: "those who know it better than the person, good to know those who were not as fun." Interested in learning the inner drive has a magical effect, can become null and void effective, turn inefficient for Ming was a kid, Yao Ming's parents did not deliberately encourage him to basketball as their future careers, they are just to get him to do the things you like. They want a small child, like Yao Ming and the general school to university, finding a job, and then find their own way of life. But Yao had eventually opted for basketball. Later, he found himself really love Ming, Yao Ming's parents and his old teachers, coaches, and small partners, say, in fact, he does not like basketball beginning of the year for him, basketball is just a game. Yao Ming's father, Yao Zhiyuan, said a child, like Yao Ming and the other boys like guns, and later Aikan Shu, in particular, love to read geography books. There was a time also became interested in archeology, and then further, like to do model aircraft, he was the first time in Ti Gongdui took wages, buy a model aircraft to come back ourselves. And then later on like playing a learning, Yao Yao's parents never forced, but rather inspired to display their main emphasis on cultivating his interest. Yao enjoy this way to make learning fun. After growing up, every time someone asked about his childhood, he will say: "I am coming to play, and no one forced me to learn." In fact, he called the play is to read their favorite books, study all its own curious things. As the music in which, just like playing the parents have ordered their children after school and learn this or that - music, painting, dancing. Children did not have freedom of choice, parents have the final say. Yao Ming Yao Ming's mother never forced to do such a thing, and she let Yao trying to do anything they like. Yao Ming not only required her to do bad things or do things the wrong Ming until 9 years old, began a little interest in basketball. To 12 years old, he was very fond of the sport of basketball. Parents took him to the Shanghai Sports Institute, where he was a few hours every day playing basketball. Live on campus because of Yao Ming, the road away from home more distant, which makes him more time to play basketball, he was increasingly preoccupied with 's favorite player has three, they are Aruiweida Division? Sabonis, Hakeem? Olajuwon and Charles? Barkley, Yao has also admitted that he had used "Sabonis" as the network name. Yao Ming's mind, Sabonis is a basketball center technology, textbooks, "almost all the locations have some of the players in the technology." Sabonis is Yao started playing when the idol. Yao Ming like Sabonis play the way - skilled dribbling, with incredible way to give the ball to the open man, in the long-distance precision shooting. Whenever he was on the floor, he would emulate his idol this was very concerned about the Houston Rockets at the time. The team of another agile big man Hakeem? Olajuwon led by two consecutive years 1994 and 1995 to win the NBA championship. Yao fell in love with the team, and also very admired Hakeem Olajuwon. These are more interested in basketball to Yao Ming, but also made him even more motivation to play enough. Can be seen that interest in a person's personality formation and development of a person's life and activities have a huge is the individual specific things, activities and man-made objects, the resulting positive and tendentious, selective attitude and emotions. Everyone interested in the things of his to give priority attention to and actively explore and demonstrate fascinated. For example, the Yao Ming on the basketball produced a strong interest in, that is why attention to basketball and basketball only for the devoted enthusiasm, effort; also for example, some people interested in art, he would have a variety of oil paintings, art exhibition, photography will be seriously Watch, commentaries, to a good collection of works, in not only concern the surface of things, any kind of interest in this area are due to receive the knowledge or participation in such activities, people experience the emotional satisfaction generated. For example, a person interested in dancing, he would take the initiative and actively looking for opportunities to participate in, but also in dance to feel pleasure and relaxation, showing a positive and , the interest in the role of a person shown in the following areas:First of all, the role of the preparation for future activities. For example, a students of chemical interest, it may inspire a variety of chemical knowledge, he has accumulated to study a variety of chemical phenomena, for future research and chemical aspects of the work involved in laying the groundwork to prepare , the ongoing activities play a catalytic role. Interest is a kind of strong emotion of the interest of the activities, it can be to get people to focus on knowledge and creativity to complete the current activity. . well-known Chinese scholar Professor Ding Zhaozhong once said with deep feeling: "Any scientific research, the most important thing is to look for his own lack of interest in the work, in other words, that is, there is no dedication, this can not have any forced. ... ... such as engaging in physical experiment, because I am interested, I can two days and nights, or even three days and three nights in the laboratory, keep the instrument beside theI was anxious to find that I want to explore things. "It is the interest and dedication contributed to the scientific research undertaken by Professor Ding effort and he received a great , the attitude of activities to promote the role of creativity. Interest will encourage people to delve into the creative work and study. Secondary school students for a course on interest will be prompted him to study hard, and creative thinking, will not only greatly improved his grades, but will greatly improve the learning methods to improve learning , the people's interest not only in the study, the occurrence and development activities, up, and also to understand and engage in activities in the great driving force. Yao Ming's interest in basketball and become a great player and we are able to because of interest in the achievements of their own future.
Humans in the 21st century, the electronic age also makes synchronous communication possible. In international business communication, the speaker can master the language communication, is achieving the desired objectives. Business writing is essential to the communication channels, this way of communication through the process of writing communication of tone problems are analysed thoroughly, so as to improve the business , introductionHumans in the 21st century, economic globalization, international business activities more frequent intercourse, business communication has entered a new stage of development, more and more people show the trend of internationalization, the working environment is more and more diversified. The electronic age also makes synchronous communication, English as possible throughout the world common language in business, one in speech communication plays a compelling communication effect. In international business communication, the speaker can master the language communication, is achieving the desired objectives. In the process of communication, also can use business writing. Business writing is necessary in a communication channel by way of communication, business writing, you can ask others to pass accuracy, business information and good business writing is a kind of business etiquette, can give people leave a good , the influence factors of tone1 words and construct sentences. First, sincere words to the communication or business life, sincere cooperation is the most important thing is the most basic, due to our partners to read every day, so the commercial electronic mail file should be concise wording, if use too much words one or two words can mean, obviously makes writing content and vague, drag will waste the time more readers. Regardless of such as in time at were now better, rather than the event is better. If. To use common words, avoid uncommon or spelling words. A word can express, don't use phrases. Use short sentences, because more easy to understand. With less ", "" and", "will", "" these make sentences nowadays become tedious conjunction. In the letter, don't use the same meanings of words. More than Because many use simple little can be more direct simple message and try to persuade the reader, and save time. Example is better than with which now. Avoid using the mean ambiguous words or phrases, the expression that readers will definitely affect misunderstanding, business communication. Therefore, business writing email should be specific, structure clear wording, content clearly. Moreover nowadays women in business, the role of not less than men, more and more women, especially the feminist movement to contain the words very sensitive sex discrimination. Avoid using business email has sex discrimination of communication, this words for both. The chairperson alternative chairman, etc. Finally, people often complain when used in anger or negative words or phrases, the expression of readers, often including criticism or blame, then against business communication. Business letters should adopt positive affirmation of the meaning of the words, avoid using negative expression. Even want to criticize each other, also should not be shown on the wording, should adopt positive tone and indirect or other language, in order to better acceptance. Because business communication purpose is not to blame each other, criticism or not intentionally let them feel guilty, the real purpose is to provide information or other beneficial to take action, to solve the the language style. General language styles mainly from natural and whether formal whether such two angles appraisal. Martin Joos according to the degree of formal language use forward five variants: the grave style (half style), The formal style (formal style), The consultative style style (with), Casual style (the casual style), Close the style (intimate style). Business language is a formal language, however, with the increasing trade between business contacts with the trade relations between each other, to strengthen the understanding and communication, due to personal attachment, the trend into the content of electronic business English language style, the liberalization of tend to use language and concise. On one hand, electronic business English should save those polite words, excess leads directly to the consultation, the main theme is to be short and concise, easy reading. On the other hand, electronic data exchange and cable etc, the use of language and short sentences are made its language style. If written content to benefit more words, writers, demand the other party has accepted the desire of the word, can show enthusiasm content, If written content just to benefit, writers speak words of writers, cautious, indirect some to give each other with greater freedom of choice, the language style -- Russia tenses. English tenses, passive and Chinese, it is through the verb forms change and other auxiliary means to achieve, and mainly through some Chinese grammar and prepositions, such as: ", and to have, by "etc, and to reflect changes of tenses, passive. Because of the differences in English communication, we are committed by the native, tenses, passive error. In spoken English has sometimes can be used to replace it, make mood, for example, some becomes indirect below sentence with general now or the can be used, but is polite to discuss some (with more tone of), as do/come on me? And I wonder if youcould heard/spare a minutes, etc. Now for a business of emotional component, such as I "m expecting to sell me. (please tactfully). The modal verb is in English, should pay attention to, such as table with purchase request more than you can, can go withme? And? Could I have obvious for different tone. Also used for more polite than that would, in tone than if you , the conclusionBased on the electronic business English writing the article discusses tone, the tone of the wording, tenses and style are analysed thoroughly. The firm is to illuminate the communicator usually depending on the communicative purpose use different tone, give word meaning, and thereby achieve interpersonal effective communication. Therefore, the tone of electronic business English writing is analyzed in the cooperation of a successful business neglected is an important part. In the writing process needs attention: language to clean, simple, straightforward, avoid cliches, Try to use a positive and optimistic tone, Application of active tense, rather than passive.
Some people think that we learn our most important lessons in school. Others think that the knowledge we acquire outside of school is the most important. Which view do you agree with? Use specific reasons and examples to support your opinion.问题——现实情况——他人的观点——你的观点 Children all around the world are attending school. Education has become a core issue for every government on earth, and they are all striving hard to achieve higher quality and larger scale of education. This is by no means coincidence, but indicates the importance of education. In my point of view, we learn our most important lessons of our life in school, which is reflected by the emphasis of education by governments.理由一 In schools, students learn the essence of all human knowledge. The human knowledge is accumulated through all human history. Knowledge taught in lessons in school are selected and selected over thousands of years, composing the fundamental knowledge a person needed to survive and succeed in society. For example, the mathematics courses in school lay the basis for every student who is to understand numbers. If they know nothing about mathematics, they may well be fooled in the future by banks and other people.理由二 Also, the knowledge taught in school is often systematic and reasonable, rather than discrete pieces of knowledge. Through the process of learning systematically and solving academic problems by reasoning, students only learn the knowledge they are learning, but also learn the most efficient way to view and solve problems around us. For example, through learning physics and chemistry, students know more about what's happening around us, but more importantly, they grasp some idea of observation, assumption, experimentation and conclusion.理由三 And lessons in school often determine students' appetite of literature, art and music. In schools, student spend much more time learning famous piece of literary works, paintings, sculptures and great compositions, which is definitely different from what they hear and see outside the school. In this way, their appetites for beauty reach a higher level. And an appetite for fine arts and literature would bring tremendous benefits to the happiness of their life, considering the huge heritage of fine arts we have!理由四 To conclude, the knowledge taught in school is the true essence of all human knowledge, and school knowledge has a tremendous positive effect on individuals.总结理由，强化结论
英语语言学论文2000字
关于英语语言学的论文，论文题目和主要内容已列出，供参考。链接附后1.题目：语言学英文版论文。主要内容：该论文主要讲词汇是构成语言的基本单位，词汇习得在语言学习中占有重要地位。英国著名语言学家. Wilkins (1972) 说过：“没有语法，人们不能表达很多东西；而没有词汇，人们则无法表达任何东西。”这就说明了词汇在学习中的重要性。本文旨在分析二语词汇习得策略并应用于不同水平的学习者。学习者根据自己的水平选择正确的习得方法和策略学习词汇，从而提高学习效率和习得效果。.题目：.英语专业毕业论文(语言学)——谈判英语文化差异。主要内容：该论文主要讲国际商务谈判中文化差异的影响，就是汉语习惯思维和西方语言文化之间表达的准确性对商务谈判带来的影响。.题目：外国语言学及应用语言学硕士论文：商务英语信函的词汇特点研究，主要内容：商务英语信函词汇的选择和应用多呈现如下7种特点：1)简单词汇的选择。2)具体词汇多于笼统词汇。3)褒义词多于贬义词。4)缩写词的选择。5)确切词汇多于模糊词汇。6)礼貌、客气的词汇多于不礼貌的词汇。7)商业术语的选择。产生的原因多取决于商务活动的和商业伙伴的合作关系。商务活动的双方均为达至双赢的进行合作。这是本文所分析的词汇特点产生的主要原因。
How to improve your English in full detail (my experience) The Third EditionTo be good at English is not particularly easy but not terribly hard you start to learn sentences, or new words, the first and also the most important step is the "pronunciation". To pronounce perfectly you should buy a tape to assist you to learn and practise. This is the fundamental step to learn English, ignore or pay no attention to this step; you will not learn proper English and you will find the later steps more and more difficult. If you are solid and accurate in pronunciation, you will find the later steps much easier and you will stand firmly on the right mastering the pronunciation perfectly, it is the time to accumulate new words and useful expressions. Of course start from the simplest words like “hello, hi, you, me, he, him, his, her”, etc.... and expressions like “how are you, how old are you, how do you do”, etc.......... It is essential to write the words on a piece of paper so that you remember them well. Actually everyone had done these at his/her primary school.*************Now let me tell you how I learnt English in China. *******************Speaking:In China, you won't have enough chances to speak English. What I did was in the morning I got up early and read aloud the texts in the textbooks. The initial aim was to achieve the same speed as the tape, and then being able to read aloud the texts with the same style as the English announcer in the tape. By doing this, it helps you to consolidate your pronunciation and it is much easier to learn English in China because you can watch some TV channels in English. The more channels in English the better because you can choose your preferred programmes and it helps you to learn English with interests of your own, hence ideal for listening and expression/words is also very useful to write diaries. On writing diaries, it is not useful if you just write it without the care of grammar and spelling. When you finish you should always read your diaries again to check for errors and refine your sentences (. remove repetitive words, use better expressions, and sort out the structure of the sentences).Reading:It is also very important to read story books in English, starting from thin ones with not many new words. Read as many thin books as you possibly can. Little by Little you will want to read thicker books, and your reading ability will get even four elements together:I have to emphasise that when you do all these reading, listening, writing and speaking; you should join them together as a whole, apply the new words you learn from watching TV, reading books to your writing and enhancement of learning comes from getting hold of the possible opportunities to speak English (in China or abroad):In China, you should try to go to local English corner to practise your oral English. If you are abroad then you should make a lot of English or international friends so you always have the opportunity to speak Spoken English, attitude is very important. You need to be very keen and you must not be shy. Never be afraid to make mistakes. Always think that a talk in English with some one will help you can think in this way: since my parents have paid so much to support me to study abroad, the money is partly spent on the international environment for learning English; therefore I ought to try my best to take every opportunity to practise my English. My English has risen to a higher level in the last 2 years, because I talk in English most of the time. Having some international friends is particularly useful indeed. Summing up the activities:I have also been watching TV too. The real improvement lies in staying with international friends long enough and watching a lot of TV such as news, football, dramas, documentaries etc.... Writing diaries also helps me to remember good words, good expressions and practise sentence structuring.*****Now, I have finished talking about how to learn and improve General is the time to switch to "Your Major in English" *******************************Knowing general English on its own is not going to be sufficient for most people. Skills are as important as mastering another language. General English helps people to communicate with each other in their lives. Technical English helps you to take on challenges to change the world for the highest, to earn money for your living for the people who have a degree in English go abroad to learn something different but heavily based on the language such as Media study, Journalist, History, Education or even a bit more technical like Finance, Business Administration or is extremely useful to know more because there are so many words in English and they appear differently to each other. For people whose second language is English, will find it difficult to guess the meaning of a new sure, it is not possible to know a major first and put all your effort on that major, in the end you will have a rich vocabulary of that on learning Technical English:To master technical English in your area of study, there are two difficulties to , the language, because it is not your first language, you need to remember the terms, knowing how to pronounce it and spell , surely you need to understand the terms in a technical matter what field, it is going to be the same; the two difficulties above must be I take Physics as an example (note that whatever field you are looking into is going to be similar):The term "momentum" is basically the product of the mass of the object and the velocity it travels. Obviously, you need to understand mass and velocity as well. If you understand mass and velocity, then you get the explanation of the term "momentum" in physics, then you are most likely to understand the word and use it properly in the technical world of Physics. From this example, you can see how to understand a technical word in a technical fashion: you need to understand the very fundamental knowledge of a field to be able to understand more complex terminologies or learning technical English in your field of study, I have a good recommendation to save your time:To understand technical knowledge in your first language (Chinese), then you might not have the second it left to overcome is just the first difficulty (the language), hence the effort required is can give you an example of my own:When I was learning chemistry at A-level, I had already learnt inorganic chemistry at the equivalent level in China, so I had no difficulty whatsoever in learning inorganic chemistry in the UK in I had not learnt organic chemistry in China, and I was struggling significantly in learning organic chemistry in the UK due to dual difficulties.************OK, I have finished talking about how to improve your technical i will talk about IT (Information Technology), why is this important? Because nowadays it is the information age, you need to know computers, Internet, media and communications etc. Knowing how to use Internet to search information will help your English. ************I don't want to waffle too much on this. Computers are more and more important nowadays, everyone wants a computer and most people have their own computers. But most people are not using the right Operating System for learning English. Now I would like to introduce you to Debian Linux Operating system or a much nicer operating system called Ubuntu Linux. If you still don't have a computer you can buy a China's home grown computer based on a Loongson CPU. It saves your electricity and your time to deal with will help you to improve your English skills because you need to read some documents and follow the instructions to set up software programs, it also requires you to search the Internet (Google for example) to find the answers to your problems (. installations of software programs)you can read about the commands of Linux in the terminal by putting in "man
像语音学，音位学，以及形态学，句法都不好下手建议写社会语言学或是心理语言学方面的，可以深入对比一下中西方思维的差异之类的，应该是一个好的论点加油~~
英语专业的吧。。哪学校的？
汉语言文学论文范文1500字
汉语言文学审美问题的研究有助于促进其更好的发展,对于做好汉语文学审美 教育 有一定价值,要准确把握汉语言文学特性与时代审美特征,深入研究审美问题,进一步促进汉语言文学的创新发展。下面是我为大家整理的汉语言文学 毕业 论文 范文 ，供大家参考。
《 汉语言文学专业人才培养模式探讨 》
人文应用型人才是集 文化 思想与实践应用于一体的全面性人才，可以在学习中不断地提升文化情怀与自身素养，并能够渗透到工作实践中，影响社会。汉语言文学专业主要学习文学史、哲学史等社会科学知识，它的精神价值一直对人内心的修习产生重要作用。
一、汉语言文学专业的人才
汉语言文学专业在我国已有100多年的发展历史，培养了无数学者与优秀人才，在发展的过程中，也逐渐深化课程，开始涉及到互联网、对外交流等方面，扩大了专业学习内容。汉语言文学专业主要是针对前人留下的文化遗产进修学习，中外世界文学、哲学、历史等方面是课程必修内容，而随着时代进步，这些文化信息越来越多，理论知识也越来越广，所以，专业人才技能也随之进步。而汉语言文学专业的学生长久积累文学、历史、哲学等知识，使得学生自身文化思想层面高、文笔扎实、思维跳跃，在写作、分析、引经据典方面优越于其他人。
二、人文应用型人才
应用型人才包括诸多方面，人文应用型人才只是其中一个分支，主要就是针对文学素养高的人文科学方面的人才。人文应用型人才有两大特点：一是文学素养程度高，精神价值高于物质，将我国特有的百家思想和西方自由平等尊重的思想集于一体，提倡新的文化思想素养;二是针对我国提倡的“人才需要 社会实践 ”观念，应该将自身专业技能用于社会实践，并能在社会实践中将优秀的人文精神感染给身边的人，通过“滚雪球”的方式将这种优秀的人文思想传播给社会，对社会造成良好影响，改善社会不良风气。汉语言文学专业是人文应用型人才的主要培养对象，需要将自身的技能在社会实践中体现出来，人文知识是人精神层面的慰藉，而应用于实践便是人的精神产物，需要有良好的培养模式才能将精神与实践相结合。
三、培养模式
(一)课程改革
汉语言文学专业的学生人文素养和知识技能是经过长年累月的积累，可以保证精神境界的教育。所以，课程设置应该多开设实践应用课程，确保学生人文精神的学习有用武之地，而不再只是存在于脑海心间。现代社会注重的就是人才的实践能力， 经验 丰富的人与初出茅庐的学生肯定不可同日而语，所以，课程向实践改革是必需的，可以多增加学生专项能力写作、古典文学演讲、 辩论 等课程，将汉语言文学专业的“语言能力”“文学能力”突出出来。
(二)社会实践
汉语言文学专业人才大多从事编辑、写作、文秘等文职工作，强调良好的文化底蕴，但是没有经过社会的历练，学生就不会懂得工作的性质。所以，在人才培养上，应该固定让学生参加社会工作的实践，比如假期去一些社区、机构、公司做兼职工作，既可以有工作经验又可以提升实践能力。
(三)多元化学习，专业性人才
汉语言文学专业包括文秘、新闻、教育等单独模块，在进行人才培养时，可以多方面学习，但是，术业有专攻，老师可以帮助学生对自己的发展前景进行规划，进行专业培养。我国教育要求人才德智体美劳全面发展，但却很少有人能够做到，只有专业人才专攻其事，才能将自身能力完全施展。所以，在汉语言的学习中，文化知识的培养固然重要，但也要认清自身特点，将人文知识分门别类，针对自己精通的模块专业学习，其他模块辅助学习，这样才能做好人文应用型人才。
四、结语
大众对于汉语言文学专业的印象就是文化素质高的文学人才，对于专业性能不够了解，但应用型人才是时代发展的必需品，汉语言文学专业的学生必须在拥有文化素养的同时不断增强自身各项技能才能在未来的工作生活中更有优势。所以汉语言文学专业需要不断开拓新思路，增强全方位的人才培养模式，增强自身人力资本，更好地适应社会要求。
《 汉语言文学专业学生创新能力提高策略 》
市场经济的发展，社会竞争的不断加剧，各行各业对创新型人才都有非常大的需求。但当前汉语言文学专业的学生仍缺少一定的创新能力，需要对其创新能力进行培养。因此，需要对当前汉语言文学专业学生在创新方面的问题进行改正，从而提升其创新能力。
1当前汉语言文学专业学生的基本现状
当前汉语言文学专业学生的基本状况主要有以下几个方面的表现：第一，教学内容缺乏时代性。当前一些大学不能根据时代发展变化，及时对教材进行调整，致使教学内容老套;第二，缺乏培养学生创新能力的意识。当前一些大学教师仍是上完课就走，缺乏对学生创新能力的培养，不利于汉语言文学专业学生创新能力的培养。
2增强汉语言文学专业学生创新能力的意义
增强汉语言文学专业学生的创新能力具有重要意义，具体表现在以下两个方面：第一，对于汉语言文学的利用与开发具有积极的推动作用。汉语言文学专业具有较为悠久的历史，但随着时间的推进，汉语言文学专业在教学内容以及教学方式等方面，都呈现出一定的问题，需要对其进行调整和改进。提高汉语言文学专业学生的创新能力，无异于为汉语言文学的发展添加了生机，给汉语言的利用与开发创造了有利的条件;第二，有助于学生实践能力的提升。学生在养成创新意识以后，会有增强其实践的动力，进而在此过程中，使学生的实践创新能力得到锻炼。
3提高汉语言文学专业学生创新能力的 措施
汉语言文学专业学生创新能力的提高，需要教师在教学过程中，通过对教学内容的丰富与完善，对教学环节的改进，以及增强学生创新意识，关注学生的感受三个方面着手，只有让学生在学习的过程中，养成了自主创新的意识，才能有效推动学生的实际行动，使其成为社会所需要的人才。
完善汉语言文学专业的教学内容
汉语言专业学生需要具备的 基本素养 之一就是拥有审美能力，尤其是体现学生人文素养的文学审美。汉语言文学专业学生的审美能力，不仅关系到其对专业知识学习的敏感度，对其未来的发展也具有重要影响，高级文秘需要具备的特质之一就有审美能力，因此加强对学生审美能力的培养是非常重要的。而在汉语言文学专业学生的专业课中，文学理论课是培养学生审美能力的主要课程之一，对于学生对于文学作品的鉴赏能力和创造能力具有重要影响。这就要求教师在进行教学的过程中，根据班级学生的 兴趣 爱好 ，选择恰当的文学作品对作品中的语言运用、技巧的使用等进行鉴赏分析，进而增强学生的审美能力。此外，教师还可以通过在班级组建讨论小组等形式，增强学生对该方面内容的兴趣，促使学生有意识的增强自身的审美能力。
丰富汉语言文学专业的教学环节
助理、教师等是汉语言文学专业学生将来主要从事的职位，这就要求汉语言文学专业的学生具有较强的沟通协调能力，然而在实际的汉语言文学教学中，对于学生能力的培养却缺乏一定的重视，因此要求对其进行一定的改革创新，强化对汉语言文学专业学生能力的培养，使其能够得到一定的重视，促使其具备工作中应具备的能力。例如，现代汉语教师在上课时，不要仅仅局限在教材之上，而是应该在立足教材的基础上，超越教材。由于大学中通常都会有来自于全国各地的学生，因此在发音上也会存在差异。教师就可以利用这种情况，在将中国七大方言时，分别选取代表，让学生自己体会感受，各地方语言的不同，从而加深学生对该知识点的理解。或者教师可以在班级组织一次 作文 比赛，针对学生中的病句等问题进行讲解，从而帮助学生增强对学生语言交际等能力的培养。
关注汉语言文学专业学生的感受
汉语言文学专业的学生需要较高的写作能力，写作能力不仅是学生专业能力的体现，更是对学生各方面能力的反映。从某种程度上来说，汉语言文学专业的学生的专业素养，从其写作水平就可以体现。因此，学校在培养汉语言文学专业学生写作方面的力度一定要加强，为此需要从以下几个方面开展：第一，提升学生的理论修养。在培养学生的理论修养的过程中，可以通过丰富学生的阅读量等方式，增强学生的思想深度与高度，使其在阅读分析以后，理解 文章 的内涵;第二，加强学生的用词的准确度。当前很多汉语言文学专业的学生，存在词汇量贫乏，并且不能正确使用使用的现象，教师应该根据学生的这种情况，有针对性的进行训练，从而改善当前这种状况，使学生在写作时可以做到用词精准简洁;第三，加强对学生语法的掌握。当前很多汉语言文学专业的学生在学习语法的过程中，仍不能有效的掌握其中的使用 方法 ，需要教师根据班级学生对语法掌握的实际状况，采取有效地措施与方法，加强对语法的学习，从而使学生在进行写作的过程中，能够灵活使用语句，降低出错率，进而增强学生的写作水平，提升自身的专业素养。
综上所述，汉语言文学专业是各大高校都有的专业，其在高校中所占的比重也是不容小觑的。但随着社会的进步与发展，汉语言文学专业在教学中的弊端逐渐显露出来，需要不断对其进行改进。为此，各大高校应该根据时代发展的需要，对汉语言文学专业学生教学进行调整，通过对教学方式、教学内容等的改变，增强学生的创新的能力，使其成为社会所需的人才，为国家发展做出贡献。
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5. 关于汉语言文学专业毕业论文范文
6. 汉语言文学毕业论文范文
汉语言文学是一门有关语言的专业,其对语言文字的修养及其能力也是相对较高的。下文是我为大家整理的关于汉语言文学的毕业论文范文的内容，欢迎大家阅读参考!
浅谈重视汉语言文学专业教学
【摘要】汉语言文学专业不是应用型较强的专业，为适应当前的就业形式，本文提出从两个角度指导该专业的教学：从实用性的角度，优化课程，强化学生的专业知识结构和强化课程应用性，提高学生本专业的应用能力;从创新的角度，突破专业限制，进行教学内容创新，并重视学生创新思维的构建。这有利于提高学生的专业素质，丰富他们的知识结构，增强其在社会立足的本领。
【关键词】汉语言文学;专业人才;教学探讨
汉语言文学专业的教学特点
汉语言文学专业很难和一些实用性较强的专业，如工程、建筑、医学、会计等一样获得准确的职业定位，更是很难直接和应用型人才挂钩。它作为传统的人文学科，是体现人文精神的最直接的载体，担当着传承与提升全民语言与文化素质的重任[1]。其主干内容是中外的优秀文学文化遗产，而核心内容则是对人类生存意义和价值的关怀，是对自身、他人、集体、民族、国家，乃至对人类的一种认识与社会责任感。为此，汉语言文学专业的教学特点在于：所培养的学生主要是从事人的工作的，注重培养学生的人文素养;教学不体现在应用性，而是体现在对社会观念与精神取向的影响上;不注意直接创造可以计量的经济效益，而在于创造无法用数字统计出来的社会效益等。由于社会的进步和当前就业压力的增大，教学实用主义成为了教学的主要目标，对于汉语言文学专业教学而言，也必须进行一些必要的改革，在保持传统的基础之上，积极和社会接轨。
2用实用性理念指导专业教学
《中国大学生就业》杂志给出该专业的就业方向为教师、各类编辑职务、文秘、文案策划人员等。但事实上，该专业的毕业生就业岗位大多集中在政府机关、教育科研、新闻出版、企业公司等中国单位，还有少数人涉足律师、房地产、金融外贸等新兴行业。由此可见汉语言文学专业具有较宽的职业适应性，但同时，由于相关行业存在文秘、新闻、广告、公共管理专业的毕业生，造成了对他们较大的冲击力。从现实意义来看，从实用性的角度指导教学应注意：
优化课程，强化学生的专业知识结构。汉语言文学专业课程包含现代汉语、古代汉语、中国现当代文学、中国古代文学等十余门课程，有必要从以下三个角度对课程进行优化：精简课程内容，每门课都要根据对本领域最新知识结构的分析来设计教学内容，强化核心内容;优化课程结构，按照学科发展的当下高度来考虑学科基础，设计课程内容体系;整合各课程之间的内容，避免内容交叉重复，如写作学和文学概论中的文体学知识。
强化课程应用性，提高学生本专业的应用能力。以就业的观点指导教学改革，就必须讲求专业的实用性，只有这样学生才能在社会上立足。结合该专业学生的就业方向，对汉语言文学专业学生的核心竞争力，即现代“读”、“写”、“说”这三个方面的能力，必须加以强化[2]。该专业的实用性教学应体现在五个方面：古今各种文体的阅读能力，现代各类文体的写作能力，口头表达能力，语文教学能力，信息调研能力等。学校和教师必须精心设置课程体系，安排教学内容，形成本专业课程的应用模块，通过系统的应用技能课程的设置，以保证学生在学校能够提高这五个方面的能力，获得将来从事语言文字工作的应用能力，成为汉语言文学专业的应用型人才。
3用创新的理念指导专业教学
创新包括教学内容创新，教学方法创新，教学思维创新等。本文强调：
突破专业限制，进行教学内容创新。该专业的学生就业范围较广，但往往不精，竞争力上不如其他专业学生。鉴于该专业的特殊性，教学过程中不必过分拘泥于语言与文学本身，而可以结合汉语言文学的历史发展与就业现状，对学生进行相关职业技能的培养。事实上很多新专业如新闻、广告、文秘，甚至公共管理基本上都是从汉语言文学这个专业发展而来的。因此，在保证专业根基扎实的前提下，应打破人为设定的专业界限，以便更大限度地发挥汉语言文学的专业优势。如教育与教学、新闻传播、文秘与公关、社区文化管理、广告文案等等都可以设计成汉语言文学专业的应用模块，学生通过这些模块的学习获得动手能力和从业能力。
重视学生创新思维的构建。汉语言文学专业本身要求学生具备丰厚的东方文化底蕴。该专业有极强的文化特征，其教学直接影响学生对汉语的感情，对东方文化的亲合及从中汲取创新精神动力，并影响学生创新素质的形成。因此汉语言教学中必须重视对学生创新思维的构建[3]。首先，教师应有强烈的创新教育意识，思想上要勇于开拓，力求提出独特的、新的教育活动思路，行为上善于探索，潜心实验，不断总结和不断进取。在教学中不能满足做文化的传声筒，要适当的通过文化评论等多种方式激发学生的思维，并对社会文化现象进行思考，如博客，新媒体等多种文化传播方式都可以成为学生思考的问题。其次要勤于思敏于行，发展创新思维能力。教师应以其丰富的知识做背景，在教学中不断抛出新观点，给学生以震撼，激励他们也去发现、思考、创新。可以说汉语言文学专业教师必须在不讷于言的同时，还要敏于行。沉默寡言不是该专业的个性，只有言行结合，才能让学生让自己更自信，更有思考的动力。
参考文献
[1]伍建华.汉语言文学专业应用型人才培养的基本思路[J].2008,(11):204-205.
[2]陈吉猛.汉语言文学专业人文应用型人才培养模式初探[J].中国电力教育,2008,(9):74-76.[3]丁琴海.大学人文教育的几点思考[J].国际关系学院学报,2007,(3).
解析汉语言文学教学方式创新
摘 要：对于汉语言文学的陈旧的教学方法进行实施改革办法，对于现阶段的素质教育有着非常重要的保证，要求教师在教授基础知识以及讲解的过程中，还要对于学生自身的人文关怀进行加强，对于中华民族悠久灿烂的文化资源进行发展利用，做到学生在对课本知识进行学习的时候，还可以对自身的认知能力进行提高，提高自身的人文素质，成为国家未来发展的栋梁。
关键词：汉语言文学;教学方式;创新
1 导言
随着现代科技的不断发展，给当前的汉语言文学的教学工作带来了新的工作契机。整合古典文学和现代文学的系统知识，创新好教学方法，现代汉语言文学的教学工作才能彰显其独特魅力，不断地吸引学生的注意力，并让汉语言文学教学工作趋于领先的水平。
2 我国汉语言文学教学的现状
学生基础薄弱
汉语言文学对学生的语文素养要求高，尤其是对文言文，要求学生具有较好的理解和表达能力，能自行阅读和理解文言文，如对通假字、同音字等，要求学生有较为系统的文学知识。但我国大学生由于高中进行文理分科，并没有投入大量的精力在语文上，更别说相对晦涩难懂汉语言了，导致我国学生普遍文科基础薄弱。此外，大部分学生对汉语言的兴趣不大，很多是"被选"为汉语言文学专业的学生，在大学期间也没有通过扩大阅读量等方式提高自己的基础。
教学只注重知识理论而缺乏实践
目前我国很多地区的汉语言文学教学只对书本上的理论知识有要求而对学生的合理利用所学知识的要求很低甚至不作要求。不能否认汉语言文学的理论性很强，但是在这个世界飞速发展的21世纪，理论型书呆子的需求量很小，现在社会更多的是需要知识储备丰富、实践操作能力强的双向人才。教师只要求学生记忆理论知识，会使学生理论和实践严重脱节，实际应用表达水平严重不足，现在的社会需要用言语把自己推销出去，这时候的口语表达水平就十分重要了。简单的说在参加面试时面对面试官都不能巧妙的展示自己的才能特长，怎能赢得面试人员的青睐?口语表达看似简单却是个人素质的全面体现，具备较高的口语能力足以体现一个人的德、学、才、识。所以，我们现在的汉语言文学教学不能单纯的要求记忆理论知识更要强化学生的实践意识及能力。
汉语言文学教学的师资队伍专业水平不够
随着时代的发展，汉语言文学本来就已经渐渐变得冷门，再加上其教学方式传统落后，导致社会中人们普遍对汉语言文学这门学科的研究大幅度减少，所以，能够真正胜任汉语言文学教学的老师一直在减少，而且由于现在社会风气的败坏，导致学校在招聘教汉语言文学老师的门槛一直在降低，所以，有越来越多没有足够资历能力的人进入学校鱼龙混珠。而且，由于学校对汉语言文学这一学科的不重视，给教汉语言文学的老师安排了很多政务，使得老师对汉语言文学的教学变成一种兼职，学校的行政工作非常繁重杂乱，如此繁杂的工作已经导致老师精疲力竭，他们没有更多的精力投身于汉语言文学的教学中去，导致学校的汉语言文学的教学一直荒废，无法进步。
3 汉语言文学教学方式需要改革创新
需要加强学生的实践意识
汉语言文学具有较强的理论性但是也不能一味的进行理论知识的灌输，应该注重汉语言文学的实践性。加强学生的实践性需要教师在教学过程中很巧妙的锻炼学生的实践意识。在教学过程中，教师可以多增加互动，在互动中可以调动学生的参与热情，在参与中实践的能力也能够得到提升。同时我们的教学要把重心由听放到说、读、写上，在课堂上可以随机安排学生进行口语练习，例如可以设置特殊的场景让学生模拟当事人自由发挥随即表演，安排这样的实践活动可以锻炼提升学生的自我表达能力和应变能力，在理论学习中适当穿插汉语言文学实践活动，这样可以很巧妙的将理论和实践结合。也可以给学生布置主题限时演讲、汉字听写大会、诗歌朗诵会等形式多样的课堂活动，提高学生的参与热情，增强学生的自主学习意识，锻炼提高学生的心理素质，更好的与人交流。实践证明学生对于参与性、实践性教学的积极性兴趣高涨，教学效果良好。
对汉语言文学的教材进行改革创新
如今的教育都是以开放教育为主且着重培养实用型人才，所以在教学过程中，一定要注重教学的实践性。首先。我们应该做的是对汉语言文学的教材内容进行改革创新，随着时代的进步，社会的发展，汉语言文学的教材内容应该顺应时代的发展，适应新形势下汉语言文学教学的发展，以必要的理论知识为核心，在教材中融入更多的实践性强的实验应用，注重培养学生的实践能力，以及对汉语言文学的研究能力。
教学过程中要做到理论和实践之间有效的结合
在对汉语言文学的教学过程中，不能单单的让汉语言文学整体的教育方法方式仅仅停留在教育的表面。学校对于汉语言文学进行教学的过程中应当做到推陈出新，一定要打破陈旧传统的汉语言教育方式模式，真正做到提高整个汉语言文学自身教学过程中的社会适用性。在汉语言文学的教学实践具体的过程中，参与教学的教师一定要摒弃陈旧的教学方式，一味的对学生进行灌输知识，采取单一呆板的教学模式，教师要充分的结合讲授法和引导法以及采取探究式的学习方法以及采取小组合作的办法等诸多的形式进行教学，实现教学过程中师生之间的交流和互动。教师应从学生学习兴趣出发，赋予汉语言文学教学新的时代语言，开创新的汉语言文学教学格局，让学生能够从内心深处喜欢汉语言文学学习。
4 结论
汉语言文学的教学方式随着时代的进步和社会对于这方面人才的需要不断丰富和发展，为了提高学生的学习热情带动学习兴趣，老旧的教学方式必须改革创新。汉语言文学的教学中我们应该摒弃循规蹈矩的教学思想，积极的创新的教学方式，让汉语言文学的文化精髓通过创新教学的模式发扬光大。
参考文献：
[1]赵君玉.汉语言文学教学中审美教育的实施[J].才智，2014，07：292.
[2]张晔.当代汉语言文学教学模式之我见[J].中国科教创新导刊，2013，07：90.
[3]徐景宏.论汉语言文学教学策略及教学改革[J].中国科教创新导刊，2013，28：113+115.
[4]次旺罗布.浅析汉语言文学教学改革与创新[J].课程教育研究，2014，06：95.
英语论文格式1500字
英语专业毕业论文其实格式和一般其它专业差不多，具体论文格式要以你学校提供的毕业论文模板为准，因为每个学校的论文格式多多少少都是不一样的，如果找不到合适的格式，可以百度下：普刊学术中心，也提供有很多论文格式模板和范文，可以多学习下
英语论文格式模板2017
英语论文格式模板是怎样的呢?撰写一篇优秀的毕业论文，除了细心严谨之外，还要了解论文格式。下面是我分享的英语论文格式模板，欢迎阅读!
英文论文格式均以美国土木工程师协会出版社发布的标准格式为准。
英语论文用激光打印机打印，打印稿为黑白稿，彩色打印件会影响出版效果。 版心：a4纸，上、下页边距 cm，左、右页边距均为 mm。论文内容宽不得超过， 长不得超过。
字体和字号：正文，标题，作者联络信息和图表中的文字均为times new roman 12号字。可以跟据需要使用同类字体中的粗体，斜体。
行距：单倍行距。
页码：论文正文和文后所附图例都需添加页码。页码为阿拉伯数字，位于页面下方居中。
文体：文章应语法正确，技术用词准确。标题应该以最简洁的语言概括文章内容。如果标题较长，请采用title: subtitle的形式。
数学公式：文中的数学公式不得手写，必须打印。公式如果在文中多次被引用，应该编号。公式之间，公式和正文之间都应该空一行。 单位： 文中所用的度量衡单位应为国际单位。可在括号内，单位对应表中列出其他单位。有关国际单位的使用(standard practice for use of the international system of units)可以通过电话1-向asce索取。其他相关使用参考文献，如anmc metric editorial guide， 5th ed，1992 可向美国国家公制协会 索取(american national metric council， 1735n. lynn street， suite 950， arlington， va 22209-2022)
图表：
标题说明和图例：插入的图表应该以出现顺序编号(figure 1，figure 2，table 1，table 2)。图的说明和标题，包括图的序号应该位于图的下方。表的说明和标题，包括表的序号应该位于表格上方。
位置：图可以插入到正文中，或者集中放在文章最后。如果在正文中插入图，尽量放在页面的顶部或尾部。不要选择文字环绕图形的对齐方式，可选择上下环绕方式。
底纹：插图中不要选择带阴影或底纹，否则会影响印刷效果。
照片：如果文中需要附上照片，在文中出现照片的地方贴上其黑白光面冲洗照片，标题说明位于照片下方。照片将和正文一起缩印，请不要提供彩色照片，以免影响印刷效果。
扫描图：印刷后的扫描图不如原件清晰。如果文中有扫描图，请提供灰色色标扫描图。
作者联络信息：请用横线和正文隔开。联络信息可以为一位作者或所有作者的，包括以下内容：作者全名;所属学会;学历或授予的荣誉;所在单位;通讯地址和电子邮箱;电话和传真。
参考文献：所有参考文献为单倍行距，放在文章最后，按照第一作者姓氏的字母顺序排列。如有同一作者的两篇以上文献，按出版年代先后排列。正文中引用参考文献时，作者和出版年代应该放入括号内。由于上标缩印后会变小，难于辨认，正文中不使用上标标注参考文献。所列出的参考文献应当在正文中都有所引用，如果正文中没有引用，请将文献列入文章最后的附加信息(additional information)部分，或者相关材料(related materials)部分。
论文一般由题名、作者、摘要、关键词、正文、参考文献和附录等部分组成，其中部分组成(例如附录)可有可无。论文各组成的'排序为：题名、作者、摘要、关键词、英文题名、英文摘要、英文关键词、正文、参考文献、附录和致谢。
1、毕业论文格式的写作顺序是：标题、作者班级、作者姓名、指导教师姓名、中文摘要及关键词、英文摘要及英文关键词、正文、参考文献。
2、毕业论文中附表的表头应写在表的上面，居中;论文附图的图题应写在图的下面，居中。按表、图、公式在论文中出现的先后顺序分别编号。
3、毕业论文中参考文献的书写格式严格按以下顺序：序号、作者姓名、书名(或文章名)、出版社(或期刊名)、出版或发表时间。
4、论文格式的字体：各类标题(包括参考文献标题)用粗宋体;作者姓名、指导教师姓名、摘要、关键词、图表名、参考文献内容用楷体;正文、图表、页眉、页脚中的文字用宋体;英文用TimesNewRoman字体。
5、论文格式的字号：论文题目用三号字体，居中;一级标题用四号字体;二级标题、三级标题用小四号字体;页眉、页脚用小五号字体;其它用五号字体;图、表名居中。
6、格式正文打印页码，下面居中。
7、论文打印纸张规格：A4210297毫米。
8、在文件选项下的页面设置选项中，字符数/行数选使用默认字符数;页边距设为上：3厘米;下：厘米;左：厘米;右：厘米;装订线：厘米;装订线位置：左侧;页眉：厘米;页脚厘米。
9、在格式选项下的段落设置选项中，缩进选0厘米，间距选0磅，行距选倍，特殊格式选(无)，调整右缩进选项为空，根据页面设置确定行高格线选项为空。
10、页眉用小五号字体打印XX大学XX学院20XX级XX专业学年论文字样，并左对齐。
11、使用软件：MicrosoftWord2000以上版本。
文献注释
注释不同于参考文献。参考文献是作者写作论著时所参考的文献书目，集中列于文末。而注释则是作者对正文中某一内容作进一步解释或补充说明的文字，不要列入文末的参考文献，而要作为注释放在页下，用①②标识序号。注释中提到的论著保持通常格式，如：
①与正文部分空出两行;②按照文中的索引编号分别或合并注释;③注释采用五号黑体，注释内容汉语采用小五号宋体，英语采用Times New Roman 9号。
英语论文的格式
在个人成长的多个环节中，大家一定都接触过论文吧，论文是对某些学术问题进行研究的手段。写论文的注意事项有许多，你确定会写吗？下面是我帮大家整理的英语论文的格式，欢迎大家分享。
论文的'规格：正文长度 5，500—8，500 单词。
使用的语言：英语
论文分题目、引言、正文、参考文献、致谢等部分。
引文要注明出处。直接引用要加引号，间接引文要以转述的方式出现。然后以括号把引文来源写清楚：(作者名，年份，引文所在页码)
论文正文部分：
1、 题目大写，三号字，新时代罗马字，大写下面可写一个附标题，4号字;
2、 作者名，5号字，班级，学号
3、 指导教师名，5号字，职称
4、 摘要：用300词，5号字, 英文一页,中文一页
5、 关键词：不能用专有名词，词与词之间空四格(或一个tab键)，不加标点符号
6、 正文：用5号字, 大部分标题用5号字黑体、小部分、小小部分。大部分用罗马字，小不分用一般数字符号：
引言：引入正题，不超过2段
7、 参考文献(bibliography)：先英文,后中文
作者名，出版年月，文章名/书刊名，出版社，地点
9、致谢(acknowledgement)
五、 毕业论文质量标准
(一)选题恰当、与毕业生的知识水平与认识能力相当;
(二)内容丰富、资料翔实、论证充分有力;
(三)观点正确、逻辑性强、无违反国家大政方针的观点;
(四)叙述清楚、层次清晰而丰富;
(五)语言表达正确，无拼写错误、语言错误控制在20-25%00(万分之二十到二十五);
(六)用词、造句、谋篇、布局等方面无明显失误，修辞错误率控制在2%。
1.文章标题 英文标题一般在10个实词以内,最多不超过15个实词,避免使用非公知公用的缩略词,代号等.
2. 论文如有涉密问题或已在公开期刊上发表,请在篇首页地脚处注明.
3. 摘要 英文摘要一般为150-180个实词,中文摘要一般在300字以内,中英文摘要应基本一致.其内容应包括研究目的,方法,结果,结论等,禁用"本文","作者","This paper"等作主语.详见"科技期刊文章摘要的写作要求".
4. 关键词 每篇文章可选3～8个能反映文章主要内容的单词,词组或术语.英文关键词应与中文关键词相对应.
5中图分类号 请查《中国图书馆分类法》.
6. 正文 正文篇幅一般希望控制在成书5页(记空格,图表占位)以内.内容力求有创新,论证严谨,语句通顺,文字精炼.
7.文中正体,斜体,黑体字符的用法:
⑴斜体.变量名称用斜体单字母表示;下标若是由变量转化来的则用斜体;坐标轴(如x,y)和变量(如i,j)用斜体.
⑵正体.下标由文字转化来的说明性字符用正体;单位,词头用正体,如nm,pF等;几个特殊常量用正体,如e,i,π等.
⑶黑体.矩阵,矢量名称用黑体表示.
8.图形要求
图中所有线条,文字必须用黑色绘制;用线形或标识符区分;不得有背景;
图中线条须清晰,均匀,刻度线向内侧画,并且间隔应均匀;
图中坐标线粗磅,曲线宽度为坐标线宽度的3倍;
9.表格要求 表格采用三线表,表头中使用物理量符号/单位,如下例:
10.参考文献 来稿引用他人观点与材料,须将参考文献按正文中出现的先后次序列于文后,文中须在引用处右上角加注"「序号」".中文参考文献必须列出相应的英文,并在后面加注"(in Chinese)".引文作者姓名均为姓前名后,最多标3名,余下用"et al."代表.
著录格式为:(按不同析出物分类说明)
「连续出版物」 主要作者.题名「J」 .刊名,年,卷(期):起止页码.
「专著」 主要作者.书名「M」 .出版地(城市名):出版者,出版年.起止页码.
「译著」 主要作者.书名「M」 .译者.出版地(城市名):出版者,出版年.起止页码.
「论文集」 主要作者.题名「A」 .编者.论文集名「C」 .出版地(城市名):出版者,出版年.起止页码.
「会议论文」 主要作者.题名「Z」 .会议名称,会议召开地(城市名),召开年.
「学位论文」 作者.题名「D」 .所在城市:保存单位,年份.
「研究报告」 主要作者.题名「R」 .报告代码及编号(或:保存地点:责任单位),年份.
「报纸」 作者名.文章名「N」.报纸名,出版日期(版次).
「电子文献」 作者.题名「EB/OL」 .发表或更新日期/引用日期.
「专利」 申请者.专利名「P」 .专利国名:专利号,发布日期.
「技术标准」 技术标准代号,技术标准名称「S」 .
Times New Roman 字体，倍行距，首行缩进2字符，