管理学论文英文文献
每当一个企业,它(直接或间接地雇用了一个特定的商业模式,介绍了设计和建筑的价值创造过程的机理、配送、捕捉它一种商业模式的本质是在德- 以精炼的企业提供满足客户需求的诱惑顾客支付的价值,并把这些付款给利润这反映了管理的假设顾客想要什么,他们要如何,企业如何才能最好地满足这些需求的组织,得到付费,赚钱这篇文章的目的是要理解的重要性,探讨了它们之间的商业模式和经营策略,创新的管理,和经济理论。
Whenever a business enterprise is established,it either explicitly or implicitly employs a particular business model that describes the design or architecture of the value creation,delivery,and capture mechanisms it employs.凡是一家经营企业成立时，它总是明确地，或含蓄地采用一种特定的业务模式，这种业务模式描绘了它所采用的价值创造、价值交付和价值收益机制的设计或架构。The essence of a business model is in de-fining the manner by which the enterprise delivers value to customers, entices customers to pay for value,and converts those payments to profit. 一种业务模式的根本是定义企业向用户交付价值，诱导用户为价值付款，以及将那些付款转换成利润的方式。It thus reflects management’s hypothesis about what customers want, how they want it, and how the enterprise can organize to best meet those needs, get paid for doing so, and make a profit. 因此，它反映了管理对用户想些什么，他们为什么这么想，以及企业如何组织来最好地满足这些需要，为这样做获得回报，最后获得利润的假设。The purpose of this article is to understand the significance of business models and explore their connections with business strategy,innovation management,and economic theory. 本文的目的是了解业务模式的意义，并探索它们与业务战略、创新管理及经济理论的联系。
New Public Management : Contemporary Western trend of the new public administration From the start of the 1970s, the West has dominated the field of public administration nearly a century. and was regarded to be effective, even the best traditional or mainstream public administration, subjected to a new external environment increasingly tough challenges, and the almost routine, rigid-tier system can not meet the increasingly rapid changes in information and knowledge-intensive society and economic life, build on its two major theoretical basis -- Goodnow Wilson and the political-administrative theory and the two-layer management Huibaike no theory Law answered and solved the government faces an increasingly serious problems and difficulties : the financial crisis, the social welfare policy unsustainable, government agencies increasingly bloated, inefficient, the public lost confidence in the government's ability, "government failure" theory has begun to dominate. 正是在这样的历史背景下，一种新的公共行政理论、管理模式——新公共管理（NewPublic Management）在80年代的英美两国应运而生，并迅速扩展到西方各国。It is in this historical backdrop, a new public administration theory, Management -- New Public Management (NewPublic Management) in the 1980s, the Anglo-American two crops, and the rapid expansion of the Western countries. 与以往传统的公共行政框架内进行的变革不同，新公共管理不是对现存行政管理体制和方式进行某种程度的局部调整，或仅仅是为了降低行政管理的成本，减少行政费用开支，更重要的是，它是对传统的公共行政模式的一种全面清算和否定。And the number of traditional public administration within the framework of the changes, Public management is not new to the existing administrative structure and ways of some degree of partial adjustment or simply to lower administrative costs and reduce administrative expenses, but more importantly, It is the traditional model of public administration of a comprehensive settlement and denied. 一、新公共管理的理论基础1, the new public management theory 如果说传统的公共行政以威尔逊、古德诺的政治—行政二分论和韦伯的科层制论为其理论支撑点的话，新公共管理则以现代经济学和私营企业管理理论和方法作为自己的理论基础。If the traditional public administration to Wilson. Goodnow political-administrative theory and the two-Weber-tier system on the support of their theory, new public while management of modern economics and private enterprise management theory and methods as its theoretical basis. 首先，新公共管理从现代经济学中获得诸多理论依据，如从“理性人”（人的理性都是为自己的利益，都希望以最小的付出获得最大利益）的假定中获得绩效管理的依据；从公共选择和交易成本理论中获得政府应以市场或顾客为导向，提高服务效率、质量和有效性的依据；从成本—效益分析中获得对政府绩效目标进行界定、测量和评估的依据等等。First, the new public management from modern economics has many theoretical basis, From the "rational" (the rational is for their own interests. want to pay the smallest gain maximum benefits) of the premise is the basis for performance management; from the public choice theory and transaction cost which the government should be market-oriented or customers, improve the efficiency of services, the quality and effectiveness of the basis; from the cost-effectiveness analysis was to define the performance goals, Measurement and evaluation, and so on the basis. 其次，新公共管理又从私营管理方法中汲取营养。Secondly, the new public management from the private management methods to absorb nutrients. 新公共行政管理认为，私营部门许多管理方式和手段都可为公共部门所借用。The new public administration that many private sector management methods and means available to the public sector borrowing. 如私营部门的组织形式能灵活地适应环境，而不是韦伯所说的僵化的科层制；对产出和结果的高度重视（对私营部门来说，产出就意味着利润，而在高度竞争的市场环境中，要获取利润就必须给顾客提供高质量的服务，同时尽可能地降低成本），而不是只管投入，不重产出；人事管理上实现灵活的合同雇佣制和绩效工资制，而不是一经录用，永久任职，等等。Such as the private sector, the organizational form of flexibility in adapting to the environment, and not Weber said the rigid hierarchy; outputs and outcomes of the high degree of importance (for the private sector, output means profits in a highly competitive market environment, we must make profits to provide customers with high-quality service, Meanwhile, as far as possible to reduce costs), rather than just input and output weight; personnel management to achieve a flexible system of employment contracts and performance pay system, rather than by hiring a permanent office, and so on. 总之，新公共管理认为，那些已经和正在为私营部门所成功地运用着的管理方法，如绩效管理、目标管理、组织发展、人力资源开发等并非为私营部门所独有，它们完全可以运用到公有部门的管理中。In short, the new public management, and is already by the private sector to successfully used management methods, If performance management, goal management, organizational development, human resources development is not unique to the private sector. They can be used in public sector management. 二、新公共行政管理的基本特征Second, the new public administration of the basic features 新公共管理是个非常松散的概念，它既指一种试图取代传统公共行政学的管理理论，又指一种新的公共行政模式，还指在当代西方公共行政领域持续进行的改革运动。New Public Management is a very loose concept, it refers to an attempt to replace the traditional public administration management theory, Also referred to a new model of public administration, also refers to the contemporary Western ongoing public administration reform movement. 其名称在西方各国也不尽相同，如在英国叫“管理主义”，在美国则称为“企业家的政府”或“新公共管理”，在其他一些国家又称为“市场导向型公共行政”等等，但它们都具有大体相同的特征。Its name in western countries is not necessarily the same as in the United Kingdom called "management", in the United States known as the "entrepreneurial government" or "new public management" In some other countries, also known as the "market-oriented public administration," and so on, but they have broadly similar features. 首先，新公共管理改变了传统公共模式下的政府与社会之间的关系，重新对政府职能及其与社会的关系进行定位：即政府不再是高高在上、“自我服务”的官僚机构，政府公务人员应该是负责任的“企业经理和管理人员”，社会公众则是提供政府税收的“纳税人”和享受政府服务作为回报的“顾客”或“客户”，政府服务应以顾客为导向，应增强对社会公众需要的响应力。First, the new public management to change the traditional model of public government and the relationship between society, reopened to the functions of the government and with the community relations position : that the government is no longer superior, "self-service" bureaucracy, government officials should be responsible "corporate managers and managers" the public is to provide the government's tax revenue "taxpayers" and access to government services in return for the "clients" or "customers" government services should be customer-oriented and should enhance the public's need to respond to force. 近年来，英、德、荷兰等国政府采取的简化服务手续、制订并公布服务标准、在某一级行政区域和某些部门或行业开办“一站商店”服务等，就是在这种新的政府—社会关系模式下所施行的一些具体措施。In recent years, Britain, Germany, the Netherlands and other government services to simplify the procedures and to develop and publish service standards, in a regional and an administrative certain sectors or industries offer "one-stop shop" service. It is in this new government-community relations model as applied by some of the specific measures. 其次，与传统公共行政只计投入，不计产出不同，新公共管理更加重视政府活动的产出和结果，即重视提供公共服务的效率和质量，由此而重视赋予“一线经理和管理人员”（即中低级文官）以职、权、责，如在计划和预算上，重视组织的战略目标和长期计划，强调对预算的“总量”控制，给一线经理在资源配置、人员安排等方面的充分的自主权，以适应变化不定的外部环境和公众不断变化的需求。Secondly, with the traditional public administration, only the input, output or not, New Public Management pay more attention to the activities of the outputs and outcomes that provide public services to the efficiency and quality, thus entrusted to the "first-line managers and managers" (that is, low-level civil service) to the post of powers, responsibilities and If the plan and budget, the attention to the organization's strategic goals and long-term plans, the emphasis is on the Budget for its "total" control, to the frontline managers in the allocation of resources and personnel arrangements, and so on the full autonomy to adapt to the fluctuating external environment and the ever changing needs. [NextPage][NextPage] 第三，与上一点紧密相联，新公共管理反对传统公共行政重遵守既定法律法规，轻绩效测定和评估的做法，主张放松严格的行政规制（即主要通过法规、制度控制），而实现严明的绩效目标控制，即确定组织、个人的具体目标，并根据绩效示标（performance indicator）对目标完成情况进行测量和评估，由此而产生了所谓的三E，即经济（economy）、效率（efficency）和效果（effect）等三大变量。Third, and closely related, 1:00, the new public management oppose traditional public administration re-compliance with established laws and regulations, Light performance measurement and assessment practices, advocating the relaxation of the strict regulatory system (that is, through legislation, system control), achieve strict control of the performance goals, which was to determine organizations, individuals of specific goals, under the performance indicator (performance indicator) on the target for completion of the measurement and assessment, as a result, the so-called three E, in which the economy (economy), efficiency (efficency) and the effect (effect), and other three variables. 第四，与传统公共行政排斥私营部门管理方式不同，新公共管理强调政府广泛采用私营部门成功的管理方法和手段（如成本—效益分析、全面质量管理、目标管理等）和竞争机制，取消公共服务供给的垄断性，如“政府业务合同出租”、“竞争性招标”等，新公共管理认为，政府的主要职能固然是向社会提供服务，但这并不意味着所有公共服务都应由政府直接提供。Fourth, public administration and the traditional exclusion of private sector management methods differ, New Public Management emphasizes the wide adoption of successful private sector management methods and means (such as cost-benefit analysis total quality management, management by objectives) and the mechanism of competition, the abolition of the supply of public services monopoly, If "government contracts for rent" and "competitive bidding", the new public management, The main function of government is to serve the community, But this does not mean that all public services should be provided directly by the government. 政府应根据服务内容和性质的不同，采取相应的供给方式。According to the government services and the different nature of the corresponding supply mode. 如图所示：As shown : 市场状况／宪法职责模式Market status / mode of constitutional duties 附图Map 1、此项服务活动是由宪法明文规定的属政府职责范围之内，同时也没有其他竞争者，如国防，应由政府承担。1, the service activities by the Constitution provides that the government is within the scope of duties, while no other competitor, If defense, should be borne by the government. 2、虽属宪法规定的政府职责，但同时有其他竞争者的存在，即其他非政府部门也在从事此项活动，如医院，在这种情况下，政府并非一定要亲自提供此项服务，而大可通过招标、合同出租等形式，将其出租给其他公营或私营部门，政府只要对其绩效目标进行测定和评估，并提供相应的报酬，便不失为一种提高服务质量和效率的有效途径。2, although the Constitution stipulates the functions of government, but there are other competitors exist, in other words, the non-governmental sector are engaged in this activity, such as hospitals, in this case, The government is not obliged to provide such a service in person, and goes through the tender, the contract leasing, and other forms, will be rented to other public or private sector, government, as long as its performance targets and measured assessment, and provide corresponding remuneration, it is nevertheless a good quality of service and efficient and effective way. 这也就是《重塑政府》一书的作者奥斯本和盖布勒所说的政府应该“掌舵而不是划桨”。This is the "reinventing government", the author of a Osborne and Gaebler said the government should "steer and not the paddling." 3、宪法没有规定是政府的职责，而又存在着市场竞争者，如影视业，这时政府就完全可以不从事此项活动，而完全由私营部门承担。3, the Constitution does not provide is the duty of the government, the market and the existence of competitors, such as film and video industry, Then the government can not engage in this activity, and completely by the private sector. 4、宪法既没有规定是政府的职责，同时又没有或缺乏从事此项活动的竞争者，如高等院校，这时政府就应积极培育市场，鼓励人们参与此项活动，以提高此项服务的效率、质量和有效性。4, which is not provided for the constitution is the duty of the government, but also the absence or lack of this activity in the competitors As institutions of higher learning, then the government should actively develop the market and encourage people to participate in activities to enhance the service efficiency, quality and effectiveness. 需要说明的是，上述只是典型的四种公共服务类型，在现实中，It is important to point out, these are just typical four types of public services, in reality,
计算机词典.doc这里是3000多个。绝对够你用。都是信息技术词汇
经济管理学英文论文参考文献
英语论文参考文献的格式
参考文献是在学术研究过程中，对某一著作或论文的整体的参考或借鉴。征引过的文献在注释中已注明，不再出现于文后参考文献中。下面，我为大家分享英语论文参考文献的格式，希望对大家有所帮助!
一、参考文献的类型
参考文献(即引文出处)的类型以单字母方式标识，具体如下：
[M]--专着，着作
[C]--论文集(一般指会议发表的论文续集，及一些专题论文集，如《xxx大学研究生学术论文集》
[N]--报纸文章
[J]--期刊文章：发表在期刊上的论文，尽管有时我们看到的`是从网上下载的(如知网)，但它也是发表在期刊上的，你看到的电子期刊仅是其电子版
[D]--学位论文:不区分硕士还是博士论文
[R]--报告：一般在标题中会有“关于xxx的报告”字样
[S]--标准
[P]--专利
[A]--文章：很少用，主要是不属于以上类型的文章
[Z]--对于不属于上述的文献类型，可用字母“Z”标识，但这种情况非常少见
常用的电子文献及载体类型标识：
[DB/OL]--联机网上数据(database online)
[DB/MT]--磁带数据库(database on magnetic tape)
[M/CD]--光盘图书(monograph on CDROM)
[CP/DK]--磁盘软件(computer program on disk)
[J/OL]--网上期刊(serial online)
[EB/OL]--网上电子公告(electronic bulletin board online)
很显然，标识的就是该资源的英文缩写，/前面表示类型，/后面表示资源的载体，如OL表示在线资源。
二、参考文献的格式及举例
1.期刊类
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[J].刊名，出版年份，卷号(期号)起止页码。
【举例】
[1]周融，任志国，杨尚雷，厉星星。对新形势下毕业设计管理工作的思考与实践[J].电气电子教学学报，2003(6)：107-109.
[2]夏鲁惠。高等学校毕业设计(论文)教学情况调研报告[J].高等理科教育，2004(1)：46-52.
[3]Heider, . The structure of color space in naming and memory of two languages [J]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 1999, (3)： 62 67.
2.专着类
【格式】[序号]作者。书名[M].出版地：出版社，出版年份：起止页码。
【举例】
[4]刘国钧，王连成。图书馆史研究[M].北京：高等教育出版社，1979:15-18,31.
[5]Gill, R. Mastering English Literature [M]. London: Macmillan, 1985: 42-45.
3.报纸类
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[N].报纸名，出版日期(版次)。
【举例】
[6]李大伦。经济全球化的重要性[N]. 光明日报，1998-12-27(3)。
[7]Brench, W. Between Silences: A Voice from China[N]. Atlantic Weekly, 1987-8-15(33)。
4.论文集
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名 [C].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[8]伍蠡甫。西方文论选[C]. 上海：上海译文出版社，1979:12-17.
[9]Spivak,G. “Can the Subaltern Speak?”[A]. In & L. Grossberg(eds.)。 Victory in Limbo: Imigism [C]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, .
[10]Almarza, . Student foreign language teachers knowledge growth [A]. In and (eds.)。 Teacher Learning in Language Teaching [C]. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1996. .
5.学位论文
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[D].出版地：保存者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[11]张筑生。微分半动力系统的不变集[D].北京：北京大学数学系数学研究所，1983:1-7.
6.研究报告
【格式】[序号]作者。篇名[R].出版地：出版者，出版年份：起始页码。
【举例】
[12]冯西桥。核反应堆压力管道与压力容器的LBB分析[R].北京：清华大学核能技术设计研究院，1997:9-10.
7.专利
【格式】[序号]专利所有者。题名[P].国别：专利号，发布日期。
【举例】
[13]姜锡洲。一种温热外敷药制备方案[P].中国专利：881056073.
8.标准
【格式】[序号]标准编号，标准名称[S].
【举例】
[14]GB/T 16159-1996, 汉语拼音正词法基本规则 [S].
9.条例
【格式】[序号]颁布单位。条例名称。发布日期
【举例】
[15]中华人民共和国科学技术委员会。科学技术期刊管理办法[Z].1991-06-05
10.电子文献
【格式】[序号]主要责任者。电子文献题名。电子文献出处[电子文献及载体类型标识].或可获得地址，发表或更新日期/引用日期。
【举例】
[16]王明亮。关于中国学术期刊标准化数据库系统工程的进展[EB/OL].
[17]万锦。中国大学学报论文文摘(1983 1993)。英文版 [DB/CD]. 北京 中国大百科全书出版社， 1996.
11.各种未定义类型的文献
【格式】[序号]主要责任者。文献题名[Z].出版地：出版者， 出版年。
特别说明：凡出现在“参考文献”项中的标点符号都失去了其原有意义，且其中所有标点必须是半角，如果你的输入法中有半角/全解转换，则换到半角状态就可以了，如果你的输入法中没有这一转换功能，直接关闭中文输入法，在英文输入状态下输入即可。
其实，很多输入法(如目前比较流行的搜狐输入法)都提供了四种组合：
(1)中文标点+全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(而这时，我没有找到哪个键可以输入/符号)也就是说，这些符号是一定不能出现在“参考文献”中的;
(2)中文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的，：【1】-(这时，我还是没有找到哪个键可以输入/符号)也就是说，这些符号也不能出现在“参考文献”中的;
上面列出的符号，中间没有任何的空格，你能看出它们有什么区别吗?我看只是-的宽度有一点点不同，其它都一样
(3)英文标点+全角：这时输入的标点是这样的，.:[1]-/
(4)英文标点+半角：这时输入的标点是这样的，.:[1]-/
从这两项可以明显的看出，半角和全角其实最大的差别是所占的宽度不一样，这一点对于数字来说最为明显，而英文标点明显要比中文标点细小很多(也许因为英文中，标点的功能没有中文那么复杂，就是说英文中标点符号的能力没有中文那么强大)
所以，很多人在写“参考文献”时，总是觉得用英文标点+半角很不清楚，间距也太小，其实这点完全不用担心如果你觉得真的太小不好看，就用英文标点+全角吧而在[1]之后，一般也都有一个空格。
对于英文参考文献，还应注意以下两点：
①作者姓名采用“姓在前名在后”原则，具体格式是：姓，名字的首字母。如：Malcolm Richard Cowley 应为：Cowley, .,如果有两位作者，第一位作者方式不变，&之后第二位作者名字的首字母放在前面，姓放在后面，如：Frank Norris 与Irving Gordon应为：Norris, F. & .
②书名、报刊名使用斜体字，如：Mastering English Literature,English Weekly.
三、注释
注释是对论文正文中某一特定内容的进一步解释或补充说明注释应置于本页页脚，前面用圈码①、②、③等标识。
经济管理类论文范文
导语：经济管理学科是一项应用性较强的学科，基于社会视角下的高校大学生，更应该具备一定的问题分析能力、实际操作能力、创新创业能力。以下是我为大家整理的经济管理类论文范文，欢迎大家阅读与借鉴！
摘要: 社会视角下高校经济管理类人才培养应从实验、实训、实习、毕业论文设计等实践教学方面进行创新性的锻炼与提升，加大学生社会实践、科研活动、竞赛模式等参与度，全面提高学生问题分析能力、实际操作能力、创新创业能力等。本文针对社会视角下高校经济管理人才培养过程中存在的弊端进行分析，并针对如何提高实践教学，实现现代化、专业化的教学模式提出几点改革措施。
关键词: 社会视角;经济管理;人才培养;实践教学
随着高等教育创新创业理念的提出，传统的人才培养模式已不能满足当前大学生对教学的要求，不能适应社会对创新型人才的需求。这不仅需要大学生拥有过硬的理论性知识，更要具备较强的专业技能。因此，高校经济管理类人才培养应以实践教学为主要教学方式，建立完善的教学体系，提高教学水平，增强学生的学习能力、实践能力、创新能力，全面提升大学生的综合素质。
一、社会视角的高校经济管理类人才培养体系构成
(一)高校经济管理类人才实践教学类型
高校经济管理类人才培养是经济管理专业实践教学的主要目的，而在社会视角的影响下，高校经济管理实践教学应从四个方面进行分类式的综合性教学法:首先是实验，主要对学生的理解、运用、分析以及解决问题等多方面能力进行培养，是培养学生逻辑思维能力的主要途径。其二是实训，主要以锻炼与提升学生技能为主，包括信息资料处理、外语交际、计算机应用等基本技能和软件操作、业务处理等专业技能。其三是实习，主要锻炼学生综合能力的关键，从专业、毕业以及创新创业等方面实现实习目的。最后是毕业论文或设计，这是实践教学中的最后环节，可充分呈现出学生能力、知识、素养等多方面水平程度，也是对实践教学效果的最后总结与评价。
(二)经济管理类人才培养狭义实践教学体系观分析
传统的教学模式相对枯燥、乏味，对培养人才起不到预期的效果，将实践教学模式融入到高校经济管理类人才培养中，不仅能提升教学水平，还能使学生得到更多方面的锻炼。思想解放、能力培养、技能锻炼是实践教学的主要特点，若是与社会实践、科研实践、竞赛模式等相融合，会使高校经济管理实践教学更具有宏观特点。实现宏观教学体系，可提高对学生专业能力、适应能力、处理能力、创业能力、创新能力等多方面的培养。
二、社会视角的高校经济管理类人才培养误区分析
社会视角的高校经济管理教学是一项周期性较长的教育工作，在教学中理念与实际操作非常重要，然而这两个层面却成为很多高校经济管理教学的误区。
(一)理念层面上存在的.误区
高校中经济管理教学理念主要是以理论传授、知识讲授为重点，却忽略能力锻炼、素质培养、缺乏实践性教学内容。在教学过程中教师以传统的灌输方式来完成教学任务，认为只要把该讲的知识都讲一遍就可以，至于学生能否明白与接受，只能看学生自己的学习能力;对教学方式缺乏创新意识，缺少互动性环节。
(二)实际操作层面存在的误区
实际操作中，缺少系统完善的教学质量监督管理体系，认为学生只要参与操作就可以，没有对活动内容的考核与评价环节，忽略了学生的实际操作水平。教学设施与设备过于陈旧落后、甚至一些设备已经无法使用，完全不能满足教学活动的需要。认为学生参加到社会实践，实际操作技能自然就会得到提升，因此，校外实习也成为了形式。
三、社会视角的高校经济管理类人才培养改革措施
(一)引导学生实现理性的抽象向理性的具体发展
在实际高校经济管理教学中，多数是以理论教学与实践教学两种方式相结合，然而两者构成比重非常关键，对教学质量有直接影响。理论教学环节若是占据整个课堂的大部分时间，就会使实践教学环节相对减少。而实践环节作为培养学生能力的主要途径，应加以重视，并合理策划课程安排;将传统的理论教学模式进行改革，采用以实践教学环节为主的新型培养方式，使学生理性的抽象学习转变成理性的具体学习，更容易增强对知识的理解能力、运用能力。
(二)构建完善的实习基地
由于很多高校经济管理类人才培养过程中对实际操作存在思想上的偏差，使实践教学设施设备不健全，实习基地准备不完善、不合理，导致学生无法得到良好的锻炼。因此，高校应该加强对实习基地建设的重视，从经费、政策等方面大力支持实践教学;建设完善的实习基地和实验室，提供较全面的软硬件系统，建立完善的模拟数据系统，借助信息网络技术的应用特点，实现现代化、专业化的实验室，并配套相关的管理制度。
(三)提高教学模式规范性
规范的教学模式是促进高校经济管理教学水平稳步提升的关键，科学合理的教学形式可以促使教学方式方法的进步，发扬优点，改进缺点。而在建立完善的教学体系过程中，首先要转变教学观念，本着解放思想、勇于创新的教学观念来更好的提高教学环节设置与计划，与时代性、变化性相结合，促进学生对经济社会发展的深入了解。实训环节要加强对现代技术、科学研究等方面的培养，促使学生适应现代社会发展与变化。
(四)加强教学质量管理与控制科学的实践教学体系需要较为完善的实践教学管理和质量控制制度和机制作为基础，应当借鉴ISO质量管理模式，构建实践教学质量管理体系。主张通过ISO质量标准明确质量管理目标、完善质量管理文件、加强监督和考核、规范实践教学运行、搭建实践教学网上管理平台等措施，来提高实践教学质量管理的制度化、规范化、现代化水平。事实上，教学管理和质量控制是一个系统的工程，它需要各高校建构符合自身校情的实践教学评价指标，落实质量评价工程以真正实现实践教学培养之目标。
四、结语
社会视角的高校经济管理类人才培养体系包含实验、实训、实习、社会实践、毕业论文设计等环节。针对人才培养在理念和实际操作层面存在的误区，提出在理念上要辩证地认识到理论教学与实践教学之间的关系;在实际操作层面要多管齐下，切实提高实践教学质量。
作者:杨敏 单位:云南师范大学文理学院
参考文献：
［1］胡树林，李姝影，赵发兰．基于知识管理的高校人力资源管理研究［J］．科技管理研究，2012，32(5)．
［2］朱清华．高校经济管理类专业应用型人才培养模式研究［J］．课程教育研究，2015(4)．
酒店管理论文英文文献
Hotel Room Management System(酒店客房管理系统) First, school discipline consciously to comply with regulations, should civilized, courteous, ethical, stresses discipline. To be positive, loving and respecting their jobs, be good at learning, to acquire new skills. Second, it is necessary to dress induction, listing services, it is necessary to instrument client makeup, generous manner, standardized terminology, civilized service, courtesy, enthusiasm for the initiative. Third, room service, daily in accordance with the procedures and requirements in accordance with the provisions of Health and was cleaning the room, it is necessary to carefully; room to manage the items and found that the issue of timely reporting. Fourth, the provision of accommodation, there must be a department director of the Center for leadership and service signing; external accommodation officer, I have a valid identity card or registration documents before they are allowed to stay. Five are not free to get foreigners to stay or live-in room, without the consent of the Director of the Center are not allowed to open private room, for others (including our employees) to provide accommodation, rest and entertainment. Sixth, check the clean-up room shall not tamper with the guests and private use of the things that students and guests are not allowed to ask for goods and the receipt of gifts; found loss of the public have to pay for items. Seven are not allowed into the front of others; front desk computer to staff management and operation, not related to personnel are not allowed to operate privately; typing, photocopying, send and receive fax, according to charges. Eight working hours are not allowed off-the-job, leave something to the leadership, are not allowed to sit in and for private classes, are not allowed to playing poker,织毛衣, watching TV and doing non-work-related matters. 9, do a good job in security work, in particular, do a good job in security work of the fire nuisance, it is necessary to ground inspections to identify problems and deal with timely reporting. Hotel health management system First, the purpose of health management to improve the quality of the hotel to provide the customers with fresh, clean and healthy consumption environment, and special provisions of the final version. Second, the contents of 1, the management of health management, including personal hygiene items and equipment health management and three aspects of food hygiene management. 2, officials at every level of their work area kept clean of Health has carried out clean-up responsibility. Managers to subordinate the management of health workers have jointly and severally liable. 3, clean-up of professional health departments and staff responsible for the work projects of regional and specialized cleaning and management. Clean the main means of public health, the Department of Food and Beverage catering manager, kitchen and cooks, the health sector and its personnel. 4, hygiene management standards: (1) instrument appearance and personal hygiene of staff. (2) the necessary health knowledge. (3) physical, mental health, test of "health card" posts. 5, see the standard of food hygiene management "on the hotel's management of food hygiene." 6, items and equipment standards for health management: to maintain the surface of materials and equipment formation, light, no smell, no damage, no marks clean, tidy and orderly place. 7, self-health check in accordance with the staff, teams and groups to check, departmental examination, the functional departments of the four inspection system to check, using conventional inspection, special inspection, secret investigation of the way, make unannounced visits. The problems of inspection, in accordance with the standards of accountability and punishment. Third, examination 1, goods, facilities and equipment requirements of surface roughness, light, no smell, no damage, no marks clean, tidy and orderly place, or in accordance with the seriousness of the circumstances and the impact of punishment. (1) Mao Xu, floating ash, water, paper and other minor health problems, each of the punishment given to million. (2) deposition, stains, grease, the larger debris, hair, wrinkles and other health problems, each element of the punishment given to . (3) dirt, there are foreign bodies, cracks, damaged, irregular placed, dislocation, loss or lack of goods, and environmental health issues such as smell, every element of the punishment given to 2-5. 2, all periodic health clean-up, no clean-up due to the expiration of the formation of health corner, to give 1 yuan sub-punishment, which affect the consumption of guests raised by the guests, as appropriate, given the responsibility of departments responsible for warning or fault action. 3, in the personal hygiene and food sanitation violation, in accordance with the relevant system of punishment hotel. Fourth, the requirements issued since the date of implementation. Hotels, hotel industry and health system A, hotels, hotels in order to maintain the environment clean, beautiful, ground-free fruit, and garbage痰迹. Second, be equipped with sterilization or disinfection facilities, and a sound health system. Third, quilt cover, pillowcase (towels), bed sheets and other bedding should be for a one-off. Fourth, the public should be a daily cleaning and disinfecting tea. Tea Surface must be clean, no oil, no water, no smell. Fifth, the wash-room toilet tank, bathtub should be a day of cleansing and disinfection. No toilet rooms, each bed should be equipped with different markings and the basin脚盆 One each. Basins,脚盆and slippers to be a passenger and one for use after cleansing and disinfection. 6, guesthouses, hotels among public health to do the daily cleaning, disinfection, and maintain no water, no mosquitoes, no smell. 7, various hotels, hotels have防蝇, mosquitoes, cockroaches and anti-rodent facilities, and facilities for the use of regular checks and found the problem in time to improve. Eight of the passengers abandoned the clothing to be registered, the destruction of unity. 9, the shop-owned water and secondary water supplies should be consistent with the "drinking water health standards", the second water supply reservoir water to meet health requirements tubes, Do regular cleaning and disinfecting. Second, performance appraisal system of the Housekeeping Department First, employees must strictly comply with the working hours shall not be late, leave early. Second, the post on time to participate in regular (every Monday to Friday room as early as 8:00), (front desk every Monday and Thursday 3:00 .) less than regular processing in accordance with absenteeism. Third, break down each week day, when an important task to suspend scheduled to receive a short break after the off. Annual leave in accordance with the provisions of the Center. Fourth, staff sick leave the hospital to be diagnosed in advance and leave to prove a single hand, if there are special circumstances can not leave early, and should promptly notify the foreman, the foreman asked the manager. Fifth, the staff requested the leave shall be submitted in advance 3-1 days foreman, in the case of staff shortage or have an important task, you can not be granted. After the leave will be dealt with according to absenteeism. Sixth, in strict accordance with the provisions of the frequency of work, if there is urgent reshuffle, without prejudice to the normal work situation, one day in advance to apply to the Captain, without consent by unauthorized reshuffle to deal with absenteeism. Seven of the sick leave fraud matter, once found, depending on the circumstances given to deal with absenteeism or removed. Third, the Department of grooming room instrumentation requirements Instrumentation: 1, working hours should be provided for work clothes to wear. 2, work clothes should be clean, straight, in accordance with the provisions of扣好on衣扣, trousers buckle. 3, put on a pocket, pocket fitted to prohibit all sorts of things, in order to maintain and keeps its uniform. Overalls should be repaired if damaged. 4, when the attendants are to go to work wearing a black work shoes, work shoes to keep clean. Wearing socks, asked men and women of deep shallow, socks should be in good condition without damage, are not allowed to wear shoes barefoot. 5, attendants are not allowed to wear during the induction of various accessories such as necklaces, bracelets, earrings, rings and so on. 6, the work should be required to work during the wear plate position in the left chest. 7, after the attendants dress should be self-censorship, and accept only after passing inspection foreman jobs. Appearance: 1, staff should remain clean face, clean hair, beautiful hair, generous. 2 men to stay fat, the latter is not covered collar, side did not cover ears; President to stay fat,垂肩after, the former do not cover eyes. Barber Qin, Qin-xiu surface, ground剪指甲, diligence dressing, washing hands frequently, take a bath. 3, men do not stay mustache, large temples; President does not stay long nails, nail polish is not coated, do not use strong perfume. 4, President of淡妆before induction can not be浓妆艳抹. 5, to maintain oral hygiene does not smell pre foods such as onions, garlic, tofu and so on. 6, smiling, cordial and kind, dignified and stable, neither overbearing nor servile. Deportment: 1, sitting A, body straight, vertical center of gravity down, stood back, shoulders relaxed, feet close together and knees, hand on the laptop. Binocular head-up, with a smile. B, not sit chairs filled (attendants should take two-thirds of the chairs), but not sitting in the edge. C, non-前俯back, legs shaking Rocker feet, can not be cross-leg table in the handrails or. D, in front of their superiors or guests can not hold hands in the chest, can not be二郎腿Rocker can not shake the legs, do not sit半躺half. 2, standing A, chest, crosstraining, freeclimber, the rise of head-up eyes, smiling. B, his arms hang down naturally or in the body before the cross, his left hand on the right hand under the best condition to maintain services. C, when the woman was standing on his feet into "V"-shaped, close to the knees, heels靠紧. Man standing with feet shoulder width. D, can not stand when叉腰, pole bending legs or hands, help desk, wall and so on. E, standing for non-hand fork when the pocket in the clothes can not stretch, get hair and other little tricks. F, standing打拍子feet, not 32 to get together to chat. 3, take the attitude A, head, chest, arms swing naturally down, legs should be straight. Women take the word step, the man walking with the feet parallel. B, are not allowed to摇头晃脑walking, whistling, snacking may not be hand fork pockets. C, walking may not be running, jumping, not the guests through the middle. D, off-off站定, take the initiative to give way and say hello nod. E, walk in the corridor should be on the right hand wall is not allowed. F, three or more scattered to walk in small groups can not peer. May not be walking勾肩搭背, said, laughing, or rough. Fourth, the Department of incentive regulations Rooms (Punishment Ordinance) Verbal warning 1, the regular meeting or work late, leave early. 2, working hours reading books, read the newspaper, eating snacks, drinks, fall asleep. 3, spitting, litter paper, peel and other debris. 4, not at designated employees access channel, through the lobby, main entrance, warming Gallery, in civilian dress to enter the workplace. 5, in violation of the rules and regulations quarters, educators have been criticized. 6, the provisions of the ban on smoking in the smoking area. 7, on duty when listening to music, watching TV, make personal phone calls or chat by phone. 8, the working hours of unauthorized absence from the job, or a string of gang扎堆chat, not good at with instructions to enter the Center Center. 9, the slow distribution of the work of a higher level, delay, work do not have a strong sense of responsibility, carelessness, resulting in the work of errors were minor. 10, on duty in public places or when the appearance is not the whole dress is not required, such as licensing work with distortion, not the entire hair, such as relying on the walls. 11, in the use of all剔牙off, dug ears, scratching, to pull the nose, look in the mirror, make-up, started referring to, whistling, hands pockets, hands叉腰, such as loud hubbub of the move being professional demeanor. 12, service is not active, not passion, not honorific and polite language and not the guests made a positive solution to the requirements of power, caused by dissatisfaction with the guests. 13, staff regulations violations, the presence of management staff is not correct, non-stop, non-performance of the management responsibility of a minor nature. 14, in violation of the provisions of the relevant rules and regulations or department, a minor. 15, in the health inspection, a number of unqualified persons found. Slight fault 1, within one month by two oral警告者. 2, is not reasonable obedience to superior orders, did not complete the task or intention to sabotage the work of their superiors who are impolite words and deeds. 3, the work of sow discord, slander others, to spread the speech is not conducive to unity; the work of the spirit of the lack of coordination and cooperation, with the result that the work be affected. 4, time to fall asleep on duty, dry private live. 5, in violation of various safety rules and working procedures for the operation of norms and rules and regulations. 6, not to subordinate the management of discipline found not stopped, not by the punishment. 7, unauthorized use of passenger amenities or facilities, unauthorized guests turning items. 8, the language vulgar, impolite to the guests, and guests to argue, without consent or authorization into the leadership of the Office of the guests rooms. Small fault 1, by two months to deal with two minor mistakes. 2, work is not serious, not enthusiasm or the leadership of complaints by the guests. 3, authorization to accept guests tips, articles, or have left over items are not timely paid 4, the working hours as well as the impact of the guests shouted rest hubbub. 5, as a result of the mistakes made by individuals affect the work of customer service. 6, contrary to the positions of the working procedures or rules and regulations as well as hidden dangers caused by work. 7, using improper means to interfere with the work of others. 8, unauthorized use of guests of the goods or equipment without the approval of unauthorized use of center equipment. 9, knowing that the loss or loss of property, and turning a blind eye is not reporting. 10, does not provide true and accurate report, form or material. 11, leakage of confidential centers, the Center lost keys, documents and other important items. Major fault 1, within three months by the two in mind to deal with small errors. 2, twice within two months under the leadership of the guests or complaints. . 3, work positions, or dereliction of duty, unauthorized absence from the adverse effects caused by some. 4, mismanagement, resulting in serious losses Center. 5, to work with when drinking or drunkenness. . 6, refused to accept the leadership of the organization of a reasonable work, bad attitude. 7, the work of dereliction of duty caused by power failure, water, parking and other major incidents. 8, other violations of rules and regulations, the circumstances of a serious shortage of dismissal. Dismissed, removed or expelled from the 1, a serious dereliction of duty, corruption, resulting in heavy losses. 2, by the public security organs shall be held criminally accountable. 3, can not do the work, after training or adjustment of status can not be doing the work. V 4, theft or private use Center materials, private room to open. 5, insult, slander, assault, intimidation, threats against colleagues and leading or fighting. 6, alcohol, gambling, the adverse effects caused. 7, do not obey the leadership of the command, the leadership refused to assign a reasonable work, through the Education invalid. 8, deliberate damage to public property. 9, the use of public谋私, corruption, misappropriation of public funds. 10, released to the outside world center slanderous remarks made remarks prejudicial to the reputation of the Center, severely damaged the image center. 11, recorded a major fault or two small errors or warnings shown no apparent repentance. 12, other serious violations of discipline violations. (Award) 1, in the service work, outstanding performance with outstanding performance. 2, put forward some reasonable proposals to improve the quality of service or to contribute to saving energy and reducing consumption. 3, quality service, by the central leadership or guests. 4, a strong sense of responsibility, the timely detection of a variety of hidden dangers and prevent accidents. 5,拾金不昧, won the reputation as the center. 6, solid work hard to unite colleagues, be sure the same. 7, honorable, the protection of the state, collectives and the safety of guests property. 8, who have made outstanding contributions in other areas. V. Housekeeping service standards and disciplinary provisions of 1, obedience to superior management, unity and colleagues, work full emotional, not to The impact of the work for personal reasons 2, work, work to maintain the appearance of a person's own instrument, and maintain the Center clean and quiet and maintain normal private life. 3, working hours is prohibited access to make private telephone calls, meeting with friends or chat is strictly prohibited. 4, in the service area to achieve the "three-light" to speak not only light, light walking, light operation. 5, on the customer service should not be too affectionate, guests can not make up the shoulder. 6, guests can not be asked to "do not know" answer inquiries as far as possible, in the case of improper words and deeds of the guests, not tit-for-tat should be tactfully explained. Adhere to the guests is always right. 7, in the face of the guests may not smoke, eat, read the newspaper, may not be rough foul language; does not mean that the private opinions, do not talk about national issues. 8, the guests have asked or required to be recorded immediately so as not to forget that beyond the terms of reference should be unable to process request to the leadership may not be good at doing that. 9, without the guests agreed that children should not have to play the visitors to avoid unhappy customers; when going out or entertaining guests when their children can not neglect, but not chaos to the food. 10, in front of the guests did not say unnecessary action if not arrogant. 11, does not apply if the guests fall ill or have other anomalies should be reported immediately to avoid accidents. 12, knocked on the door to develop good habits, are not free to enter the guest room, guest room shall be arbitrarily moving luggage items should be in the guest room shall not open the door to close. 13, without a tenant to confirm whether or not the tenant agree that should not be opening the door for others. 14, guests should take the initiative to get out of baggage items found in time and turned over to the return of first time guests.
[1]廖佳丽:以人为本是酒店可持续发展的根本途径[J].科技情报开发与经济，2006，16（3）：179～180[2]文新跃:“以人为本”提高酒店员工满意度[J].商场现代化，2005，10（445）：191～192[3]田喜洲:论酒店管理中的人性化趋势[J].商业研究，2005，1（309）：163～165[4]左正万:酒店管理“以人为本”[N].市场报，2004-12-03（18）[5]邓雪:论企业员工满意度的提升[J].商业研究，2003，（3）[6]周文霞:管理要正视人性的特点[J].中国人力资源管理，2000，（3）[7]杨莹等:员工心理受权与酒店服务质量关系的实证研究[J].旅游学刊，2005，5（20）[8]徐洁:浅析现代酒店客房管理员工的人性化策略[J].管理研究[9]雷姝燕:以酒店人性化管理解决员工高流动率问题[J].中小企业管理与科技，2006，111]庞肖梦唐开源:《公共卫生管理高职专业人才需求调查》[J].中国初级卫生保健，2008，（2）:22～23[2]曲秀梅:高职院校旅游管理专业课程设置改革[J].职业技术教育，2007，（35）:21～22[3]张玲:酒店管理专业人才供需的问题及对策[J].《大连教育学院学报》，2007，（3）:54～55[4]张国敏:丽江高职酒店管理专业课程设置研究[J].《时代教育》，2008，（3）:59～60[5]赵居礼杨卫军等:高职工商管理专业建设的调研[J].高等职业教育，2002，（20）:45～46
绩效管理论文英文文献
论文英文参考文献格式
在社会的各个领域，大家对论文都再熟悉不过了吧，通过论文写作可以培养我们的科学研究能力。如何写一篇有思想、有文采的论文呢？下面是我收集整理的论文英文参考文献格式，希望能够帮助到大家。
英文文献采用“APA格式”：
单一作者著作的书籍：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The terrifying future: Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.
两位作者以上合著的书籍：
姓，名字首字母., & 姓，名字首字母.(年). 书名(斜体). 出版社所在城市：出版社.
Smith, J., & Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton, ON: McMaster University Press.
文集中的文章：
Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical methods for the apprehension and sustained containment of supernatural entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed.), Paranormal and occult studies: Case studies in application (pp. 42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.
期刊中的文章(非连续页码)：
Crackton, P. (1987). The Loonie: God's long-awaited gift to colourful pocket change? Canadian Change, 64(7), 34–37.
期刊中的文章(连续页码)：
姓，名字首字母.(年). 题目. 期刊名(斜体). 第几期，页码.
Rottweiler, F. T., & Beauchemin, J. L. (1987). Detroit and Narnia: Two foes on the brink of destruction. Canadian/American Studies Journal, 54, 66–146.
月刊杂志中的文章：
Henry, W. A., III. (1990, April 9). Making the grade in today's schools. Time, 135, 28-31.
php论文英文参考文献
[1]冯国良.基于Web及VRML网络教学平台的设计与实现[D].西安电子科技大学，2010.
[2]赵胜.基于B/S架构的Moodle网络教学平台的设计与实现[D].河北科技大学，2012.
[3]晏榆洋.基于web的在线网络教学平台的设计与实现[D].电子科技大学，2013.
[4]王逾西.动态网页的数据库连接技术[J].天津市财贸管理干部学院学报，2010，12（1）：41-43.
[5]徐一菲，陈光柱，沈春丰等.基于PHP网站的远程控制系统研究[J].微计算机信息，2010，26（15）：135-136，115.
[6]丁鲁南，康梅娟.基于WAMP的红色文化动态网站的设计[J].科技资讯，2012，（26）：20-20.
[7]滕文.基于MVC模式的PHP程序开发[J].科技视界，2012，（28）：262.
[8]郭雪清，肖飞，黄正东，王光华，宋莉莉，张伟.医院绩效管理信息系统的设计与实现[J].中国数字医学，2014，13（15）03：12-14+17.
[9]袁永革.试析医院管理信息系统的设计思想及其实施[J].计算机与信息技术，2014，16（18），03：91-94.
财务论文英文参考文献
[1]Adams, M. and Hardwick, P. An Analysis of Corporate Donations: UnitedKingdom Evidence [J], Journal of Management Studies, 1998,35 （5）： 641-654.
[2]Aronoff,C.,and J Ward. Family-owned Businesses: A Thing of the Past or Model of the Future. [J]. Family Business Review, 1995,8（2）； 121-130.
[3]Beckhard,R“Dyer Jr.,. Managing continuity in the family owned business [J]. Organizational Dynamics, 1983,12 （1）： 5-12.
[4Casson, M. The economics of family firms [J]. Scandinavian Economic History Review, 1999' 47（1）：10 - 23.
[5]Alchian,A.,Demsetz, H. Production, information costs, and economic organization. American Economic Review [J]. 1972,62（5）： 777-795.
[6]Allen, F,J, Qian and M, J. Qian. Law,Finance and Economic Growth in China [J], Journal of Financial Economics, 2005,77: .
[7]Amato,L. H.,& Amato,C. H. The effects of firm size and industry on corporate giving [J]. Journal of Business Ethics,2007,72（3）： 229-241.
[8]Chrisman, ., Chua,., and Steier, L. P. An introduction to theories of family business [J]. Journal of Business Venturing, 2003b, 18（4）： 441-448
动画论文英文参考文献范例多则
[1]程曼丽、王维佳：《对外传播及其效果研究》[M],北京大学出版社，2011年，36页.
[2]冯捃、何春耕：《《功夫熊猫》的跨文化传播分层解读》[J],《电影评介》，2014年第5期37-40页.
[3]范文杰、戴雪梅：《无意识一内隐认知理论的演变历程回顾及展望》[J],《重庆工商大学学报》，2009年第6期，596-601页.
[4]管文虎等：《国家形象论》[M],电子科技大学出版社，1999年，23页.
[5]郭秀艳、崔光成：《内隐学习本质特征的实验研究》[J],《心理科学》，2002年第1期，43-46页.
[6]陈晓云：《动画电影：叙事与意识形态》[J],《上海大学学报（社会科学版）》，2010年第5期，54-60页.
[7]黄国文、徐裙：《语篇分析与话语分析》[J],《外语与外语教学》，2006年第10期，2-6页.
[8]李德顺：《普遍价值与其可观基她》[J],《中国社会科学》，1998年第6期，5-14 页.
[9]刘丽英：《国家形象研究文献述评及营销视角分析一基于CSSCI（2001-2011）的研究》卬，《学术探索》，2014年第2期，120-123页.
学术论文英文参考文献注入格式
一、学术论文英文参考文献标注格式。
按照现行规定，学术期刊中论文参考文献的.标注采用顺序编码制，即在文内的引文处按引用文献在论文中出现的先后顺序以阿拉伯数字连续编码，序号置于方括号内。同一文献在一文中被反复引用者，用同一序号标示。这一规定使得所列文献简洁明了，应该引起论文作者注意。英文参考文献和中文参考文献一样，按在文中出现的先后顺序与中文文献混合连续编码着录;英文文献用印刷体;英文书名、期刊名和报纸名等用斜体;所列项目及次序与中文文献相同，但文献类型可不标出;忌用中文叙述英文。其格式为：
专着、论文集、学位论文、报告-[序号]主要责任者。文献题名。出版地：出版者，出版年。起止页码(任选)。
示例：[1]Day,C.,Veen, Walraven,G. Children and youth at risk and urban education. Research,policy and prac-tice. Leuven/Apeldoorn:Garant. 1997.
期刊文章-[序号]主要责任者。文献题名。刊名，年，卷(期)：起止页码。
示例：[2] Driessen,G.,& Van der Grinten,M. Home language proficiency in the Netherland:The evaluation of Turkish andMoroccan bilingual programmes- A critical review,Studies in Educational Evaluation,1994,20(3)：365- 386.
论文集中的析出文献-[序号]析出文献主要责任者。析出文献题名。原文献主要责任者(任选)。原文献题名。出版地：出版者，出版年。析出文献起止页码。
示例：[3] Driessen,G.,Mulder,L.,& Jungbluth,P. Structural and cultural determinants of educational opportunities in theNetherlands. In (Ed.)，Root and migration in global perspective. Jerusalem:Magnes . 104.[5]
报纸文章-[序号]主要责任者。文献题名。报纸名，出版日期(版次)。
示例：[4] Lgnatieff,M. Keeping an old flame burning brightly. The Guardian,1998- 12- 20(12)。
电子文献-[序号]主要责任者。电子文献题名。电子文献的出处或可获得的地址，发表或更新日期。
示例：[5] Baboescu,F. Algorithms for fast packet classification. .
二、关于英文人名的标注。
现行编排规范对英文人名如何标注未作明确要求，英文人名的标注较为混乱，有标注全名的，有标注时将名缩写、姓不缩写、保持原来顺序的，还有在姓、名之间加圆点的，后者是我国翻译作品中，中文书写外国人名经常采用的一种方式。其实，标注英文人名是有章可循的，在国外学术着作的参考文献中，关于人名的标注已约定俗成为一种统一的格式，即英文参考文献标注作者姓名时，要求姓在前、名在后，姓与名之间用逗号隔开，姓的词首字母大写，其余字母不大写;名用词首大写字母表示，后加缩写符号圆点，缩写符号不可省略。由于欧美国家人的姓名排列一般是名在前、姓在后，在标注时必须加以调整。如Georg Paghet Thomson,前面两个词是名，最后一个词是姓，应标注为Thomson,G. P为什么要如此标注呢?笔者认为有以下原因。
1.在应用计算机等信息工具进行英文文献检索时，以英文作者姓名中的姓作为依据之一，即以姓作为检索目标之一。
2.在欧美人姓名表达含义里，姓比名的重要性更强、更正式。用姓而不是名来代表作者，还有尊重、礼貌的意味。名缩写后加缩写符号圆点，也含有正式、尊重和礼貌的意味，缩写符号不可省略。
3.表示与平常书写姓名的不同，体现学术论文重要性、简约性和准确性的要求，符合科研论文文体风格。这种标注在英文学术着作、科技文献中已广泛采用，也容易被广大读者、作者理解、接受。
对于复姓情况，如Jory Albores-Saavedra等，在引用标注时，应将复姓全部写出，即Albores-Saavedra, J对于姓前带有冠词或介词的情况，如带有Mac,Le,Von,Van den等，标注时不能省略，应同姓一起提到前面标注，如Mac Donald,La Fontaina,Von Eschenbach,Van den Bery等。这里有个有趣的现象，对于北欧人常见的姓Van den Bery,如Van的词首字母大写，表示它是姓的一部分，标注时应与姓一起前置;如果作者姓名书写为Graham van den Bery,其中van的词首字母v没有大写，则表示它不是姓的一部分，姓Bery前置时，van den仍留在原来的位置，并且不可缩写或省略，标注为Bery,G. van den.另外，对于“姓名+学位”的情况，标注时一般把“学位”删去，不要将其误认为姓或姓的一部分.
一个参考文献有两位或两位以上作者时，标注时除按上述要求将每位作者的姓提前书写外，作者与作者之间用逗号分开，最后一位作者前加&符号，如示例[1],也可仅保留前三位作者，之后加etc.表示。
三、关于英文参考文献发表(出版)时间标注到年的问题。
发表(出版)时间是参考文献的一项重要内容，标示引用文献发表的历史时间位置，是判断引用文献新旧的一个根据，不可遗漏。国外学术论着中参考文献的发表(出版)时间标注到年，这与我国学术论着中参考文献的标注规定相同。国外学术论着中参考文献的发表(出版)时间的标注位置有标注在作者后的情况，并加圆括号，这是因为采用了“着者-出版年”制。我国学术期刊编排规范参考文献的标注采用“顺序编码”制,发表(出版)时间标注靠后，如示例[1]、[3],应按此要求标注为是。
四、英文析出文献名和原文献名的标注。
由于现行编排规范对英文析出文献和原文献的标注书写要求不够明确，目前有把析出文献名排成斜体，而把原文献名(论文集名或期刊名等)排成正体的情况。这种标注方式是不对的，混淆了析出文献名和原文献名的效力，正确的编排要求与此相反，国外的普遍作法与我国学者的论述[4]要求一致，因此这一现象值得编辑同行注意。
英文书名在英文文章中出现有排成斜体的习惯，论文集名、期刊名或报纸名与书名效力相同，故排成斜体，析出文献名相当于书中的章节标题，不具有书名的分量，故不可排成斜体。
在标注原文献名及作者时，原文献多指论文集或与之类似的著作，英文标注习惯上在编着者名前加词首字母大写的介词In,作者姓名前后次序不作调整，名缩写为词首大写字母，后加缩写符号圆点，姓完整标出，不缩写。作者后加编者一词的缩写形式及缩写符号圆点，词首字母大写，外加圆括号，如标注为In S. Weil(Ed.)，如示例[3].然后斜体标注原文献题名，后加注出版年，起至页码的缩写形式pp.和析出文献的起至页码。当原文献有两位或两位以上作者时，作者姓名同上述情况一样，前后次序不作调整，分别标出，编者一词缩写用复数形式Eds.,如In L. Eedering,& P. Leseman(Eds.)。
文献类型不宜标出。文献类型是我国编排规范制定的标注要求，国外并未采用。在中文中标注醒目、自然，在英文中此一项目的标注容易产生误解和干扰。如果是为方便计算机在检索或统计时辨识，是技术上的要求，那么就应当统一要求标注，从“可不标出”来看，尚未有技术上的要求。因而，文献类型在英文参考文献中不作标注为妥。
五、出版地和出版社(商)的标注。
出版地和出版社(商)是参考文献的重要内容，标示版权信息，不可遗漏或省略。我国一部着作一般由一家出版社负责出版发行，出版地一般也就比较明确为出版社所在的城市。国外情况就比较复杂了，由于市场经济高度成熟，语言通用程度高，着作权被普遍保护等原因，一部着作可能由不止一家出版社(商)合作出版发行，出版地也可能在不同国家的不同城市。当出版地有两处或两处以上、出版社(商)有两个或两个以上时，应当一一标出，中间用斜杠分开。如Amsterdam/Philadephia:Ben-jamins,又如Den Haag:Sdu/DOP出版地一般是出版社(商)所在的城市，标注城市名，不可标注为国家名。
参考文献补充了文章的重要信息，涉及范围十分广泛。因而，希望在修订现行编排规范时，对英文参考文献的标注作明确规定，以便作者写作和编者编辑时皆有章可循，亦使这项工作更加规范。
java论文英文的参考文献
参考文献：
[1]王庆智.王喜富.基于供应链管理的物流信息平台设计研究[A].第五届中国工业企业物流论坛论文集[C].2007(8)
[2]张翔.基于XML与Java技术构建电子政务系统的方法研究[D].西北大学.2008(5)
[3]符强.基于Java动态编程技术的软件自愈合构架研究[D].西北工业大学.2007(3)
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[6]赖小平.基于工作过程导向的《Java程序设计》课程开发与实践[J].福建电脑，2015，（05）：52-53.
[7]孙晓奇，李胜，张文娇.基于工作过程的教学模式在java课程中的应用[J].电脑知识与技术，2014，（02）：338-339.
参考文献：
[1]李舒，陈丽君.高校学生成绩管理系统的设计与实现[J].辽宁大学学报：自然科学版，2006，3（3）：283-285.
[2]徐亮.高校智能排课系统的研究[J].电子设计工程，2013，21（7）：24-27.
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参考文献：
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除此，还有很多这类的附上网址 measurement is the process of assessing progress toward achieving predetermined goals. Performance management is building on that process, adding the relevant communication and action on the progress achieved against these predetermined goals.[1] In network performance management, (a) a set of functions that evaluate and report the behavior of telecommunications equipment and the effectiveness of the network or network element and (b) a set of various subfunctions, such as gathering statistical information, maintaining and examining historical logs, determining system performance under natural and artificial conditions, and altering system modes of operation.[2] In organizational development (OD), performance can be thought of as Actual Results vs Desired Results. Any discrepancy, where Actual is less than Desired, could constitute the performance improvement zone. Performance management and improvement can be thought of as a cycle: Performance planning where goals and objectives are established Performance coaching where a manager intervenes to give feedback and adjust performance Performance appraisal where individual performance is formally documented and feedback delivered A performance problem is any gap between Desired Results and Actual Results. Performance improvement is any effort targeted at closing the gap between Actual Results and Desired Results. Application Performance Management (APM) refers to the discipline within systems management that focuses on monitoring and managing the performance and availability of software applications. APM can be defined as workflow and related IT tools deployed to detect, diagnose, remedy and report on application performance issues to ensure that application performance meets or exceeds end-users’ and businesses’ expectations. Business performance management (BPM) is a set of processes that help businesses discover efficient use of their business units, financial, human and material resources. Operational performance management (OPM) focus is on creating methodical and predictable ways to improve business results, or performance, across organizations. Simply put, performance management helps organizations achieve their strategic goals. Rather than discarding the data accessibility previous systems fostered, performance management harnesses it to help ensure that an organization’s data works in service to organizational goals to provide information that is actually useful in achieving them. and focus on the Operational Networking Processes between that performance level. The main purpose of performance management is to link individual objectives and organisational objectives and bring about that individuals obey important worth for enterprise. Additionally, performance management tries to develop skills of people to achieve their capability to satisfy their ambitiousness and also increase profit of a firm. 英文文献：
[1] Berger A N,Saunders A,Scalise J M,Udell G F. The Effects of Mergers and Acquisitions on Small Business Lending[J] .Journal of Financial Economics, 1998,50, 50 :187-229 . [2] Stiglitz, R. J. Reputation in a model of monetary policy with incomplete information .Journal of monetary Economics, 1986, (17) :3-20 . [3] David De Meza ,and David C. Webb. Too Much Investment:A Problem of Asymmetric Information .Quarterly Journal of Economics, 1987, (5) . [4] Sullivan, Teresa A, Warren, Elizabeth, Westbrook, Jay. Financial difficulties of small businesses and reasons for their failure .1998, .
企业管理论文英文文献
Sustainable Development and Institutional Innovation in Privately-owned Small and edium-sized Businesses YANG Da-kai, MIAO Xue-feng ( School of International Investment, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai 200433 , P. R. China) Abstract: Privately-owned small and medium-sized businesses are the main body in private-owned businesses in China and an e-merging group with special characteristics, and its state of development has a direct impact on the overall competitiveness of the Chinese economy in the future. By calculating first-order and second-order derivatives of production function to institution function and analyzing the results, it is indicated that institutional factor has a deep impact on the operation and development of privately-owned small and medium-sized businesses, and that improvement in institutional environment will greatly improve their production and operation. For this reason, the strategic path arrangement for institutional inno-vation in privately-owned small and medium-sized businesses in China is: cultivating entrepreneurship, carrying out property right innovation, perfecting operating mechanism of enterprises, and improving the external institutional envi-ronment for enterprise operation. Key words: privately-owned small and medium-sized business; family system; entrepreneur; governing structure; institutional innovation我国经济体制改革的主线和目标是建立和完善社会主义市场经济体制。市场经济的基本制度是所有制主体和利益主体的多元化,这一基本制度使我国民营经济得到了很大的发展,并日益成为我国国民经济的重要组成部分。民营中小企业是民营企业的主体,它与国有大中型企业、国有中小型企业、民营大企业都有着很大的区别,是一个具有特殊表征的新兴群体。一个已经被普遍认同的观点是,民营中小企业的发展状况将直接影响到我国经济未来的整体竞争力。Our country economic restructuring's master line and the goal are the establishment and the consummation socialist market economic system. Market economy's basic system is the system of ownership main body and the benefit main body multiplication, this basic system enabled our country privately operated economy to obtain the very big development, and became our country national economy day by day the important component. The privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise is Private enterprise's main body, it with the state-owned Large and middle scale Enterprises, the state-owned Small and medium-sized enterprise, the privately operated big enterprise has the very big difference, is one has the special attribute emerging community. One already by general acceptance's viewpoint was, privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise development condition immediate influence to our country economy future overall competitive power. 无论在我国还是在发达的工业化国家,家族式民营中小企业的存在和发展都与一定的历史阶段、社会发展状况、社会文化特征密切相关。家族企业作为现代市场经济中企业生态群体的母体和重要的企业组织形态,其治理结构优劣并存;全盘否定民营中小企业的家族治理模式,就等于推翻了当前我国民营经济的基础,这是不可取的。民营中小企业内部治理结构的演变有一个特定的历史过程,根据其发展阶段采用相应的治理结构,才能使其生命力不断延伸,而现代企业制度并不适合我国大多数民营中小企业的现实状况。Regardless in our country in the developed industrialized country, the family type privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise's existence and the development with certain historical stage, the social development condition, the social culture characteristic closely is related. The Family firm takes in the modern market economy the enterprise ecology community's parent substance and the important enterprise organizes the shape, its management structure fit and unfit quality coexisting; The total repudiation privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise's family governs the pattern, was equal to that has overthrown the current our country privately operated economy foundation, this is cannot take. The privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise interior management structure's evolution has a specific historical process, uses the corresponding management structure according to its development phase, can cause its vitality to extend unceasingly, but the modern enterprise system does not suit our country Majority Privately operated Small and medium-sized enterprises the realistic conditions. 培育企业家精神。由于企业家的素质决定了我国广大中小民营企业的素质和发展,因而民营中小企业制度创新中最重要的就是企业家自身的创新。企业家创新的途径有三个:第一,加强对企业家的人力资本投资。企业家可以通过系统学习先进的管理知识来提升自己的经营、管理能力,如主动参加培训、进修MBA、自我学习等。第二,坚持“干中学”,不断地用科学的方法归纳总结自己的经验和教训,从实践中体会、感悟企业经营管理之道。第三,适时引进职业经理人。民营中小企业家可在时机成熟时引进职业经理人,给予其一定的资本所有权,自己则保留控制权和剩余索取权。cultivates the entrepreneurial spirit. Because entrepreneur's quality has decided our country general small Private enterprise's quality and the development, thus in the privately operated small and medium-sized enterprise institutional innovations most important is entrepreneur own innovation. The entrepreneur innovates the way has three: First, strengthens to entrepreneur's human capital investment. The entrepreneur may promote own management, the managed capacity through the system study advanced management knowledge, like participates in training, to take advanced courses on own initiative MBA, the self-study and so on. Second, insisted that “does the middle school”, summarizes own experience and the lesson unceasingly with the science method induction, from the practice realized that the feeling becomes aware road of the enterprise management and operation. Third, at the right moment introduces the professional manager. The privately operated young entrepreneur may introduce the professional manager when the time is ripe, gives its certain right of capital property ownership, then oneself retention domination and surplus claim power.
新经济的最大特征是人成为最重要的生产要素，人的创造力成为企业核心的发展力，这已经成为新经济时代无可争议的真理。谁拥有最多最强的人才，谁就是市场的胜者；微软、思科、联想、宝钢、武钢、，那一家不是拥有数千名高级技术开发或管理人才。但对于这些企业老总们，最令人头疼的也是人； “IT人员不知道怎么了，你给他高薪甚至股权，他照样跳槽。”这些现象越来越成为我国大部分IT企业面临的普遍问题。笔者经过在上海宝山钢铁集团公司三年工作后，同时自己也作为一个跳槽者，经过和宝钢的人力资源部门招聘人员、被招聘大学生交流以后，发现这个问题其实受到了企业的机制、管理者风格、企业文化、人才的物质、心理需求的变化、薪酬模式、技术快速更新等一系列企业内部管理、外部环境等方面影响而产生变化。我国的企业应该如何确立自己一套可行的人力资源策略呢？在此，不想谈太多的理论，只想将一些实战中总结的经验与大家探讨： 浮躁，可能是目前许多老总们对刚刚毕业的大学生比较普遍的一个看法。有一部分大学生在求职时或刚刚开始工作时，自己还没有为公司作出什么贡献前，就先提出高薪，还要求宽松的工作环境，弹性的工作时间等等一系列要求；而且有一部分大学生频繁地跳槽，有时仅仅为了新公司比现在公司多几百元工资而已；还有一种现象，就是当今的大学毕业生在简历中夸大专业技能，或者编造经历甚至伪造学历；比如说了解某种编程语言就敢说精通、参与过某个项目就说是项目负责人。这些现象，使得老总们认为当今的大学毕业生过于浮躁。但笔者认为，这种现象并不是当今人才的主流；产生这种现象的根本是时代的变迁。新经济时代改变的不仅仅的是经济模式，它还改变着人们选择职业态度和价值观。当今大学生选择职业的态度代表了新经济的价值取向。 经过和很多自己的在宝钢工作的大学生交往,我认为,当今大学生的想法是：首先，人才认为自己的知识就能创造财富，获取薪水是应该和创造财富成正比；第二，人才关心企业的发展前景是否符合职业生涯发展、团队是否融合、企业文化是否接近自己的价值观，所以有必要先了解再下决定，选多几家很有必要。第三，技术更新不断更新给人才带来压力，他们不得不随时充实自己以免被淘汰，为此所付出的学习成本和精神压力应有所回报；第四，年轻就是资本，应该在年轻的时候追求利益最大化，要在40岁前获得可靠的物质保证。第六、以INTERNET为主信息技术的广泛使用，使得人才对人才市场的供需需求、薪酬模式有了大致的了解；同时作为自己的参考；信息的透明化使得人才与企业在商谈待遇等问题上处于知己知彼的平等位置。 企业中的大学生的离职期往往会呈现出“232”的特性。“刚到公司两个星期是一个危险期。员工在新环境下，往往会不熟悉、不适应。如果不给他明确职责角色，很容易造成人员的流失。3个月后是第二个危险期，这时员工对企业已经有了一定的了解，对同等职责的技术人员也有了了，如果在工作范围，薪资回报中不能进行合理的调整，也会形成流失。而两年是一个疲劳期，如果在两年的时间里，员工仍然得不到发展，工作也没有进步和变化，就很容易受到外界的诱惑。”笔者认为要特别注意这三个危险期，“每个企业都有一个人才流动的比率，在这个比率之内的适当流动，会为企业的发展注入新的活力，但是超过这个比率，就会给企业带来很多负面效应，无法形成稳定的企业文化，使企业的团队缺乏凝聚力和战斗力。人心不稳，也会给后来者形成一种不安全的心理。这对企业的发展是非常不利的。” “人才流动是件好事，活水才有生命力嘛，人员流动可带来技术上的交流。但流动一定要有度，否则不但给企业造成损失，对个人的发展也同样会带来不利。” 目前市场上人才流动很快,特别是IT人才,这主要有两大原因。其一，就是人才市场的供需问题。由于目前中国经济的平稳发展以及中国加入WTO后,更多的外国企业直接在中国投资，他们投资的大多都是高新技术企业.这样导致该领域的人才需求突然倍增，致使人才供给相对不足,技术人才炙手可热。于是企业争相使出浑身解数来吸引人才，高薪、股票期权、优惠的福利制度…… 企业总是觉得有需要或是在某个职位空缺的时候，才想起招聘人才，这种做法存在于大多数企业，普遍认为这是个很正常的现象；其实人才是不会等到你想找他的时候，他会出现，尤其是抢手的人才，你需要别人更需要。因此，企业由于人才的流失比较大，,加上企业的发展速度也比较大,这样企业必须储备一批人才。因此你的人力资源负责人应该时时刻刻想到招聘人才，以供未来3个月的人才需求。著名的路由器生产商思科（Cisco）和网景公司（Netscape）就时时刻刻通过各种手段招聘储备人才。 珠海很多管理者说起技术人才，真是求才若渴。但一问他们有没有专职的人力资源经理，50%没有；即使有的话，要么是行政副总或者办公室主任兼任，要么是某个助理管，从实质来说，对人力资源这个职位不够重视。其实，人力资源负责人在许多大的公司里是非常重要的职位，他不仅仅是负责招聘、人事管理，而且是制定公司发展战略、进行绩效考核、薪酬设计、培训的实施者。企业认为招聘完了，培训过了，薪酬设计好了，似乎没有人力资源部门什么事了。这忽视了一个很重要的环节，就是激励；人才不但需要物质的激励，更需要精神激励，更通俗的叫做思想工作。技术部门的负责人与人力资源负责人就好象军队中的团长与政委，一个管用人、研发、开拓，一个管关心人、激励士气、缓解冲突和解决矛盾，两者是相辅相成的。人力资源，就是如何利用人力这种资源创造财富。因此请一个优秀的人力资源经理，他一样会象技术开发部门那样去创造财富。 如何招聘到合适的人才？这首先是每一个管理者最头疼的问题，登报、互联网上登广告、参加人才交流会等等都试过了，虽然简历收了一大堆，但真正挑选出的，没几个合适。其实，好的人才就在周围。“人以类聚”，这些人才平常交往最多的肯定还是技术方面的人，或者是过去大学的同学，或者是故友、网友，大家如果话不投机，肯定不会交往。因此，鼓励公司的员工推荐他们认为合适的人才进来，远比招聘来得成效高。这还有几个好处，一个对技术比较了解，容易沟通；二，对人品、性格、经历了解，不会引来那些心术不正、动机不纯之人；三，推荐人本身对公司和被推荐人无形都有一种责任感，可以起到监督作用。华为公司就经常鼓励自己的技术人员、管理人员向公司推荐人才，而且效果显著。当然，用这种方法的企业一定要拥有良好的企业文化，企业有一定的规模，而且管理好，员工与公司的关系比较密切。 招聘必须根据人才类型选择不同的方式： 普通人才找人才市场：通常普通员工、技术性不强、专业要求不高的可以通过人才市场招募到。 中级人才找网络：软硬件工程师、中低级程序员、工程师、项目主管这一类技术性、专业性强的人才最好通过网络；因为这批人最活跃，随时寻找更好的发展机会，他们频繁使用网络。因此对从网络找工作，了解、最新动态有着浓厚的兴趣，而且利用互联网找工作或求职成为时髦。 高级人才找猎头公司：至于真正的高级人才，如总经理一级、技术开发经理、财务总监等管理、技术、财务、市场等核心任务大都是被重用，薪酬待遇可观，事业有成。即使有跳槽的愿望，也不会到流动市场（招聘会、报刊广告）去选择。高级人才大部分会选择高级人才跳槽喜欢通过猎头公司或朋友推荐，可以获得薪金谈判的缓冲。更有些高级技术人才即使才华出众，有时往往人际关系能力较差，难以与人合作。这一切，需要通过猎头公司来协调完成。猎头公司的顾问们都出身于企业的中高级管理层，担任过人力资源经理或相关职位，普遍拥有MBA等学历，经验丰富；他们善于与高级人员打交道，而且有共同的语言，并且能客观分析人才的长处短处，并提供职业生涯规划，巧妙地将人才与企业联姻在一起。优秀猎头公司不仅仅能替你寻找到高级的人才，而且能替你防止你的人才被别的公司挖走，并能设计股票期权，培训你的人才，做你人才的思想工作等等。
Managing people effectively in extension programmes is a skill that requires constant planning and development. An extension programme manager can be defined as the person who is vested with formal authority over an organization or one of its sub units. He or she has status that leads to various interpersonal relations, and from this comes access to information. Information, in turn, enables the manager to devise strategies, make decisions, and implement action (Mintzberg, 1988). Management is concerned with the optimum attainment of organizational goals and objectives with and through other people. Extension management organizations are characterized by many strategies, wide spans of control, democracy, and autonomy. Their management practices cannot be reduced to one standard set of operating guidelines that will work for all organizations continually. However, all managers of professional organizations face the same challenge: to manage one's time, objectives, and resources in order to accomplish tasks and implement ideas (Waldron, 1994). Managers of extension programmes are painfully aware of the need for revision and development of the new skill sets held by today's high performers. If change is not handled correctly, it can be more devastating then ever before. High performers reflect, discover, assess, and act. They know that a new focus on connecting the heads, hearts, and hands of people in their organization is necessary. Astute managers know what needs to be done but struggle with how to do it. Quite often they prefer to consider themselves as teachers or communicators rather than managers. This results in under-utilization of the increasing amount of literature on management theory and practice. The root of the problem is implementation. They must learn how to motivate others and build an efficient team. More formally defined, management is the process by which people, technology, job tasks, and other resources are combined and coordinated so as to effectively achieve organizational objectives. A process or function is a group of related activities contributing to a larger action. Management functions are based on a common philosophy and approach. They centre around the following: 1. Developing and clarifying mission, policies, and objectives of the agency or organization 2. Establishing formal and informal organizational structures as a means of delegating authority and sharing responsibilities 3. Setting priorities and reviewing and revising objectives in terms of changing demands 4. Maintaining effective communications within the working group, with other groups, and with the larger community 5. Selecting, motivating, training, and appraising staff 6. Securing funds and managing budgets; evaluating accomplishments and 7. Being accountable to staff, the larger enterprise, and to the community at large (Waldron, 1994b).The management functions listed above can be categorized by using the acronym POSDCORB (Bonoma & Slevin, 1978, from Gulick & Urwick, 1959): · Planning: outlining philosophy, policy, objectives, and resultant things to be accomplished, and the techniques for accomplishment · Organizing: establishing structures and systems through which activities are arranged, defined, and coordinated in terms of some specific objectives · Staffing: fulfilling the personnel function, which includes selecting and training staff and maintaining favourable work conditions · Directing: making decisions, embodying decisions in instructions, and serving as the leader of the enterprise · Coordinating: interrelating the various parts of the work · Reporting: keeping those to whom you are responsible, including both staff and public, informed · Budgeting: making financial plans, maintaining accounting and management control of revenue, and keeping costs in line with objectivesPlanningPlanning is the key management function of any extension worker. It is the process of determining in advance what should be accomplished, when, by whom, how, and at what cost. Regardless of whether it is planning long-term program priorities or planning a two-hour meeting, the planning aspect of management is the major contributor to success and productivity. Stated simply, "If you don't know where you are going, then you won't know when you have arrived!" Planning is the process of determining the organization's goals and objectives and making the provisions for their achievement. It involves choosing a course of action from available alternatives. Planning is the process of determining organizational aims, developing premises about the current environment, selecting the course of action, initiating activities required to transform plans into action, and evaluating the outcome. The types of planning that managers engage in will depend on their level in the organization and on the size and type of the organization. Generally there are four major types of planning exercises: strategic, tactical, contingency, and managerial. Strategic planning involves determining organizational goals and how to achieve them. This usually occurs at the top management level. Tactical planning is concerned with implementing the strategic plans and involves middle and lower management. Contingency planning anticipates possible problems or changes that may occur in the future and prepares to deal with them effectively as they arise (Marshall, 1992). Managerial planning is usually considered as microlevel planning. It helps in combining resources to fulfil the overall objectives of the extension organization. A needs assessment may initiate a need for developing a plan. The planning process begins with the creation of a philosophy that consists of statements describing the values, beliefs, and attitudes of the organization. Its mission statement is a proclamation of its purpose or reason for being. After the philosophy and mission statements have been established, various goals and objectives are defined. Goals are usually general statements that project what is to be accomplished in the future. An objective is a concrete statement describing a specific action. Policies are predetermined guides to decision making; they establish boundaries or limits within which action may be taken. Managers are related to policy formation in two ways. First, they play a crucial role in implementing organizational policies that have been established by higher management. Second, they create policies within their departments as guides for their own work groups. Procedures outline the series of steps to be followed when carrying out a designed policy or taking a particular course of action. Rules are used to provide final and definite instruction. Usually they are inflexible. Planning is designing the future, anticipating problems, and imagining success. In short, planning is essential for anyone who wants to survive. The functions of organizing, leading, staffing, and budgeting are means of carrying out the decisions of planning. Everyone is a planner - a planner of meals, of work time, Of vacations, of families. Formal planning, however, distinguishes managers from non-managers, effective managers from ineffective managers. Formal planning forces managers to think of the future, to set priorities, to encourage creativity, to articulate clear objectives, and to forecast the future in terms of anticipated problems and political realities. Long-Range Planning Long-range planning is vitally important in that it focuses attention on crucial future issues which are vitally important to the organization. It involves studying societal trends and issues, surveying current and anticipated learners' needs, and being aware of long-term research directions and changes in technology. Many extension workers may think that such management is beyond their level of authority, control, or involvement. They may feel that such management is the prerogative of the director, the deputy minister, or the president. However, while senior levels of management must be involved, those who implement the objectives resulting from long-range planning should also be involved.
China’s accession into the WTO has triggered extensive discussions on the part of macroeconomists, both domestic and international, concerning China’s macroeconomic performance in the future. As a would-be senior enterprise manager, I have also been gravely concerned about the possible impacts that this historical event would produce on enterprise management. During my prospective studies at NYU, I plan to work on an individual project which will be entitled Designing the Optimum Management Mode for China’s Medium- and Small-Sized Enterprises After China’s Accession into the WTO. In China, the medium- and small-sized enterprises have been playing an increasingly important role in the country’s whole economy. Yet, the management of those enterprises is far from being effective. They cannot make effective use of their resources to realize their potential profits, or they have failed to properly estimate their long-term profit-making capacity. Their survival seems to be ensured when only faced with domestic competition because their competitors are equally incompetent in their management. However, their competitors after China’s entry into WTO are those international enterprises with professional management expertise. If those Chinese enterprises cannot fully utilize their resources or make strategic adjustments, their existence and profit-making ability would be seriously jeopardized. The objective of my project is to evolve a system of optimum management mode, together with its methodology and concepts, which fits the special characteristics of Chinese enterprises. In addition, I will propose some specific feasibility models. The research findings of this project would provide valuable information for those enterprises to help them achieve that they actually deserve by means of effective project will proceed in this way. First, as China’s current economic system is rather unique in the entire world, a system that combines free market system with the so-called socialist system, I will conduct an analysis of both the macro and the micro economic circumstances of those enterprises. The research may lead to the following results, that the optimum management mode of China’s enterprises might differ fundamentally from that of their foreign counterparts in terms of its form of expression, although the purpose of designing the management mode is essentially the same --- the realization of profits. At the same time, I will endeavor to know the existing conditions of management in those enterprises and discover the inherent problems in their management and their potential resources. It is precisely those potential resources that are their potential profit margins. The aim of doing so is to compare and contrast the management in those enterprises with that of excellent enterprises. Those procedures will be completed before I leave China to pursue studies at your university. At least I will have to collect all the necessary materials before I proceed onto further studies during my program at your the second stage of my project, I will attempt at a study of all the requisite elements that characterize optimum management mode as described by management theories. I will try to trace the process how these elements evolved and their present form of expression by studying the management cases of successful international enterprises. This step will be crucial as what I discover will be the most precious experience for Chinese enterprises. As for the choice of the cases, I will concentrate on those foreign enterprises that are analogous to their Chinese counterparts both in the scale and in the nature of business operation. Based on my understanding of the existing condition of Chinese medium- and small-sized enterprises, I will lay emphasis on the construction of corporate culture and the design of management successful international enterprises have their correspondingly excellent corporate cultures which serve as the foundation for their constant creation of ever-increasing profits, sustained growth, and triumphs over their competitors. Most enterprise administrators in China are inheritors of the conventional mentality of the planned economy who absolutely fail in the cultivation of their corporate cultures. The successful cultivation of corporate culture requires the top management to be equipped with knowledge in administration science, psychology, organizational behavior and in other sciences, a process which demands tremendous creativity. To complete this project satisfactorily, I need to immerse myself in the coursework that your university will offer me. I also need to summarize the characteristics of corporate culture that many successful international enterprises share and the process whereby the successful corporate cultures developed. Those characteristics can be important lessons that Chinese enterprises can assimilate because China’s membership in the WTO forces its enterprises to be confronted with the similar business environment to that faced by their foreign counterparts long operating under the market economy system. Meanwhile, by combining my research findings with the actual circumstances of the Chinese enterprises, I can come up with some creative ideas as to the proper mode of corporate culture development in keeping with the characteristics of those enterprises. Moreover, the design of management strategies is something that Chinese enterprises lack. For Chinese enterprises that switch from a relatively self-enclosed market to the liberal international market, it is necessary to effect a transformation in their management strategies and this transformation will be vital for the successful transition from domestic to international markets. In terms of research methodology, I will adopt those approaches similar to those for my studies on the corporate believe that this envisioned project will contribute importantly to the enterprise management of China and it will be much more fruitful if I can secure assistance from the seasoned faculty members of your prestigious university.